A Method of Evaluating the Driving Force and Stresses During Tube Die Expansion
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract In this study, an analytical approach based on the energy method is used to estimate the force required to expand tubes with different die shapes. The proposed method calculates the driving force using the energy of deformation and the energy produced by friction. The new approach greatly reduces the difficulty of the analysis and simplifies the calculation. The stress distribution in the transition zone is also estimated using an analytical approach based on a self-adaption of the stress–strain curve. The approach is validated using four different numerical axisymmetric finite element models with different sizes, materials, and die shapes subjected to push and pull die expansion. Additionally, stainless steel and copper 3/8 in. tubes have been expanded with a prolate spheroid (oval) die in an experimental test bench under the two conditions of push and pull. The tangential and longitudinal strains and driving forces are monitored and recorded during the expansion process. Finally, the results from the three approaches show a very good agreement.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".