Praetorian Guards, Capitalist Modernization and the Early Global Sixties: Global Cold War, Empire and the Colonization of East Pakistan
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In the early sixties, under praetorian guards, Pakistan was pursuing a process of capitalist modernization in alliance with the US. There existed a deep political–ideological symbiosis between the policies of the Pakistani military-bureaucratic regime and the US policymakers and influential academics connected with the political establishment. The military-bureaucratic regime of Pakistan constituted a critical component of the US’ Cold War imperialism and was regarded as an experimental ground for ‘modernization’ theory. With massive aid from Western donors and encouragement from US administration and Harvard-based American advisors, military rulers adopted a growth-oriented economic policy between 1958 and 1969. During this decade, Pakistan witnessed an expansion in its industrial base concomitant with the rise of a large working class. Yet such growth-oriented strategies were not accompanied by an attention to social equity. As a consequence, despite growth, economic and social inequalities between the two wings, as well as different social classes, deepened. The experiment with Basic Democracy, a brainchild of Ayub Khan, turned out to be a coalition of economically powerful rural and urban social classes under the patronage of a ruling military-bureaucratic axis. This ruling social coalition incorporated the large industrial and banking houses and landed magnates of West Pakistan combined with the rich peasants in the countryside of East Pakistan under the institutional hegemony of the military-bureaucratic edifice. In the process, approximately 40 business houses exercised significant stranglehold over the economy of Pakistan. More importantly, Ayub Khan initiated an economic policy through Fauji Foundation that allowed the transfer of ownership of state land to the army, retraining of military personnel who sought jobs in the private sector at state expense and the unhindered circulation of military officers from the army to private industry. This established the foundation of military control over the economy and the new form of capitalistic development in Pakistan that could be termed as praetorian capitalism. It was similar to the Latin American trajectory of development of praetorian capitalism under the patronage of the US and US-based corporate houses in the Cold War era, and the consequent violence stemming from it in both contexts was also identical .
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.006 | 0.012 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.004 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".