Design and Characterization of a Flame Spray Pyrolysis Apparatus to Compare Soot Emissions from Liquid Fuels
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This study investigates flame spray pyrolysis (FSP) as a simple bench-top tool for comparison of soot emissions from different liquid jet fuels. A sampling assembly is designed for soot collection and particle property analysis. Soot agglomerate size distributions and elemental to total carbon ratios (EC/TC) are measured for three liquid fuels and flame conditions with Reynold's numbers and burner equivalence ratios ranging from 6000 to 9100 and 6.7 to 13.1. Day-to-day variations in the dilution ratio resulted in up to 20% variability in the measured total agglomerate number density and mobility diameters. Geometric mean primary particle and mobility diameter values are below 21 and 113 nm, in excellent agreement with those emitted from jet engines and earlier works using FSP. EC/TC is higher than 0.8 for all flames burning Jet A1, but values as low as 0.55 are measured for soot emitted from SAF burning flames.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".