Design and Characterization of a Flame Spray Pyrolysis Apparatus to Compare Soot Emissions from Liquid Fuels
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This study investigates flame spray pyrolysis (FSP) as a simple bench-top tool for comparison of soot emissions from different liquid jet fuels.A sampling assembly is designed for soot collection and particle property analysis.Soot agglomerate size distributions and elemental to total carbon ratios (EC/TC) are measured for three liquid fuels and flame conditions with Reynolds numbers and burner equivalence ratios ranging from 6000 to 9100 and 6.7 to 13.1.Day-to-day variations in the dilution ratio resulted in up to 20% variability in the measured total agglomerate number density and mobility diameters.Geometric mean primary particle (𝑑 𝑝 ̅̅̅ ) and mobility diameter (𝑑 𝑚 ̅̅̅̅ ) values are below 21 and 113 nm, respectively, in excellent agreement with those emitted from jet engines and earlier works using FSP.EC/TC is higher than 0.8 for all flames burning Jet A1, but values as low as 0.55 are measured for soot emitted from SAF burning flames.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".