Bibliographic record
Abstract
The cyber risk insurance market is rapidly developing in consideration of the potentially huge losses attributed to cyberattacks. This requires the insurance business to have a valuation and risk management framework that will enable cyber insurance policy issuers to fulfil their future obligations. We present such a framework for cyber risk modelling, wherein the cyberattacks’ occurrences as well as their inter-arrival and duration are captured by a regime-switching Markov model (RSMM). In this customised RSMM, the transition probabilities of the Markov chain are governed by another hidden Markov chain representing the various states of the cyber security environment. A self-calibrating mechanism is provided via filtering and a cyber kill chain is built based on the stages of the cyberattack. With the aid of change of reference probability measures and the EM algorithm, the estimators for the transition matrix are derived. Our main point of interest is the random losses from cyberattacks, which are assumed to follow a doubly-truncated Pareto distribution. The Vasiček model is utilised to describe the interest rate process for the discounting of losses. The premium for a cyber security insurance contract is calculated with the use of a simulated data set based on two pricing principles. Our methodology featuring dynamic parameter estimation and flexible adjustments in modelling various risk factors widens the available tools for pricing and cyber risk management.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".