Bibliographic record
Abstract
<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> Ammonia is a significant precursor of PM<sub>2.5</sub> particles and thus contributes to poor air quality in many regions. Furthermore, ammonia concentrations are rising due to the increase of large scale, intensive agricultural activities, which are often accompanied by greater use of fertilizers and concentrated animal feedlots. Ammonia is highly reactive, and thus highly variable and difficult to measure. Satellite based instruments, such as the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS), and the Cross-Track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) sensors, have been shown to provide much greater temporal and spatial coverage of ammonia distribution and variability than is possible with in situ networks or aircraft campaigns, but the validation of these data is limited. Here we evaluate ammonia retrievals from AIRS and CrIS against ammonia measurements from aircraft in the California Central Valley and in the Colorado Front Range. The satellite datasets were small and in California were obtained under difficult conditions. We show that the surface values of the retrieved profiles are biased very low in California and slightly high in Colorado, and that the bias appears to be primarily due to smoothing error. We also compare three years of CrIS ammonia against an in situ network in the Magic Valley in Idaho We show that CrIS ammonia captures both the seasonal signal and the spatial variability in the Magic Valley, though it is biased low here also. In summary, analysis adds to the validation record but also points to the need for more validation under different conditions.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.009 | 0.019 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; both teacher heads agree on what is shown here.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".