Modulation of forced isotropic turbulence by an anchored droplet with near-Kolmogorov diameter and varying volatility
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Utilizing a fan-stirred chamber and two-dimensional particle image velocimetry, we analyse the modification of homogeneous and isotropic turbulence ( $50 \leq Re_\lambda \leq 140$ , with supplementary data out to $Re_\lambda = 310$ , where $Re_\lambda$ is the longitudinal Taylor Reynolds number) induced by both a non-volatile (water) and a volatile (ethanol) isolated and anchored droplet in the range $(0.3 \leq d/\eta \leq 5.1)$ , where $d/\eta$ is the ratio of droplet diameter to the Kolmogorov length scale. The dissipation rate, $\varepsilon$ , is calculated via the corrected spatial gradient method, and the resultant fields of both turbulent kinetic energy, $k$ , and $\varepsilon$ are presented as spatial heat maps and as shell averages, ${\overline {k_{\Delta r}}}$ and ${\overline {\varepsilon _{\Delta r}}}$ , vs the radial coordinate normalized by the droplet radius, $r/R$ . The dissipation rate near the water droplet surface may exceed the corresponding unladen flow value by a factor of twenty or more. The normalized radius of recovery, $r^*$ , which designates the radial location where ${\overline {k_{\Delta r}}}$ or ${\overline {\varepsilon _{\Delta r}}}$ has returned to within 10 % of the unladen value, is reasonably expressed as $r^* \propto (d/\lambda )^{-C_2}$ in either case, where $\lambda$ is the longitudinal Taylor microscale and $C_2$ is a positive empirical fitting parameter. Recovery of ${\overline {k_{\Delta r}}}$ and ${\overline {\varepsilon _{\Delta r}}}$ may take up to 14 normalized radii when $d/\lambda$ is small. Trend line extrapolation suggests that the attenuation region becomes negligible as $d/\lambda \to 1$ . Ethanol, which evaporates up to five times faster than water, induces a much smaller dissipation spike near the surface. The mass ejection phenomenon appears to reduce the strong near-surface damping of the radial root-mean-square component. However, the radius of recovery trend for fields surrounding a volatile ethanol droplet falls directly in line with the non-volatile water droplet data for both $k$ and $\varepsilon$ , indicating that droplet vaporization has little effect on the far-field return to isotropy.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".