Bibliographic record
Abstract
Infant mortality refers to the death of an infant before reaching the age of one, while child mortality refers to the death of a child between the ages of one and four. Infant and child mortality rates have proved to be significant indicators of the health of past populations, and since they are related to several factors (including poverty, inadequate food, and lack of public health or hygiene) that affect the health of a population, they are often seen as indicators of living standards in the past. Even today, they are considered an important factor in measuring the level of child health and overall development in countries. Infant and child mortality and its main determinants have been investigated by scholars of different disciplines, including demographers; social, medical, and economic historians; epidemiologists; and anthropologists. Although infant and child mortality has been steadily declining over the past two centuries, in the past nearly a quarter of all children died within the first year of their lives. The decline in child mortality in most developed countries across Europe, North America, and Australia had halved by the mid-twentieth century, accounting for less than 5 percent of all deaths, while at the beginning of the twenty-first century, about one in two hundred children died before their fifth birthday. However, the fall in child mortality has not been universal: many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia still today experience large numbers of child deaths. In 2021, for instance, five million children under the age of five died, with the majority dying in the first year. Reductions in child mortality contributed significantly to the overall mortality decline during the late eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries and brought about large increases in the life expectancy of historical populations. The decline in infant and child mortality has been attributed to a variety of causes, including biological, socioeconomic, cultural, environmental, and geographical determinants; successive sanitary reforms; improvements in medical science, standards of living, and maternal education; changes in childcare practices; and the decline in fertility.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.011 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.004 | 0.005 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.009 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.009 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".