Bibliographic record
Abstract
This chapter surveys the extent and nature of language contacts in North America north of Mexico-that is, in Canada and the continental United States. The chapter begins with an introductory survey of multilingual contacts on the continent- who is (or was) multilingual, where multilingualism exists (or existed), and when contacts occur(red). Next, the focus is on contacts among indigenous peoples, especially in pre-European, pre-reservation/reserve days. The chapter then moves on to a consideration of indigenous people’s contacts with Europeans, in particular immigrants from Spain, France, England, and Russia. The next section describes some of the non-extreme linguistic results of contacts: lexical borrowing and resistance to it, and structural diffusion. A separate section is devoted to a closer look at North American mixed languages and their histories: the pidgins Chinook Jargon, Pidgin Delaware (Lenape), Mobilian Jargon, American Indian Pidgin English, the Plains Indian Sign Language, and a few others; and the bilingual mixed languages Michif and Mednyj Aleut. The final main section covers linguistic areas in North America, in particular the Pacific Northwest, Northern California, and the Southeast.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.018 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".