Performing Slavery and Freedom, 1875–1897: The Return of Henry Box Brown to North America

On March 23, 1849, an enslaved man named Henry Brown was nailed into a large wooden postal crate marked “this side up with care” and mailed from Richmond, Virginia, to Philadelphia, a two hundred and fifty mile voyage. The box was transported by railroad, steamboat, ferry, and delivery wagon; it was tumbled around several times and sometimes turned upside down so that Brown rode on his head and eventually even fainted. However, after twenty-seven hours Brown emerged from this box singing a psalm of thanksgiving, and he would never again be enslaved.1This dramatic escape made Brown famous in 1849, and he became a noted abolitionist speaker in the U.S. and in England, where he fled in 1850 due to fear of recapture. Yet Brown quickly fell into disfavor with the abolitionist movement, in part for his showy dress and his stunts. Performances in England sometimes entailed having his box transported with a parade to a show's location, where he would ceremoniously jump out of it on stage and perform acts involving conjuration, magic, and hypnosis. As Brown fell out of favor with the abolitionist movement, he also to some extent fell out of abolitionist history. Daphne Brooks argues in a trenchant analysis of Brown's career that he successfully engineered “multiple ruptures in the cultural arm of midcentury transatlantic abolitionism” leading him to embark on a performance circuit of his own making, without the help of abolitionists (white and Black).2 Therefore, with a few notable exceptions, Brown was ignored by the abolitionist movement after his great escape.Brown's 1849 escape has been studied by scholars, as well as the decades of 1849–1875 that Brown spent in the U.S. and England performing a panorama about enslavement (large painted scrolls that he would unfurl and narrate). However, the last epoch of his life (1875–1897)—when he returned to the U.S. and then eventually made his home in Canada—has received scant scholarly attention.3 Indeed little was known about Brown's whereabouts in the last decades of his life until (in 2015) my scholarship documented his death in Toronto in 1897.4 As I demonstrate here, Brown continued to perform in the later part of the nineteenth century, and his presentation modes expanded to include not only magic and hypnosis, but also jubilee singing, some forms of healing, ventriloquism, and even dark séances. As late as 1878, Brown still had the symbol of his enslavement and freedom—his box—with him and was said to use it in his stage shows.What does it mean that Brown was able to take an item that was part of his enslavement—the box in which he confined himself and labelled himself as a piece of property to be shipped to freedom—and use it for so many years as part of his performances? Brown did not so much overcome traumatic memories of his enslavement via his performances but over time he learned to stage-manage them, giving them radical political content about the everlasting nature of slavery. I focus in this article on the last decades of his life not only because they are understudied but also because they demonstrate just how much performance was woven into Brown's life as a mechanism for his survival and for socio-political critique. Brown must be understood as a radical African American performance artist who fractured dictates about the representation of enslavement and therefore should be re-inserted into the history of Black art in North America in the latter part of the nineteenth century.5On July 14, 1875, Henry Box Brown, his white, British spouse Jane Brown, and their two children (Edward and Annie) landed at New York harbor aboard the ship Algeria, arriving from Liverpool. The passenger manifest lists the following details: Henry H. Brown (50 years of age, professor); Jane Brown (44, wife); Edward Brown (10, child); and Annie Brown (5, child).6 Although Brown had left the U.S. in 1850, the U.S. public had not forgotten entirely about his story during his twenty-five-year sojourn in England. On June 9, 1870, for example, Brown was lauded (in absentia) at a celebration in Philadelphia of the ratification of the 15th Amendment, and his escape-by-box was still remembered by the press as late as 1888.7Moreover, before Brown landed in the U.S., he had arrived by way of a refurbished visual presence in one extremely influential publication. In 1872, the famous activist William Still, who had helped countless individuals to freedom through his work on the Underground Railroad, published his memoir, which contained a drawing of Brown exiting his box and an extensive account of his 1849 escape. In some earlier chronicles of Brown's unboxing, he was said to faint when first unboxed, but in Still's account Brown stands up boldly to sing a song he had chosen to commemorate his freedom: Rising up in his box, [Brown] reached out his hand, saying, “How do you do, gentlemen?”. . . Very soon he remarked that, before leaving Richmond he had selected for his arrival-hymn (if he lived) the Psalm beginning with the words: “I waited patiently for the Lord, and He heard my prayer.” And most touchingly did he sing the psalm. . . . As he had been so long doubled up in the box he needed to promenade considerably in the fresh air . . . and while Brown promenaded the yard flushed with victory, great was the joy of his friends.This is a triumphant arising from the living death of slavery, one in which Brown (even a showman upon his exit from the box, in Still's recounting) promenades the yard, rosy with his triumph.8The lithograph in Still's book encapsulates this sense of wonder and marvel that Brown's spectacular unboxing engendered, even in 1872 (figure 1). In this illustration, Brown seems to be pushing himself up and out of the box; the position of his left arm suggests activity and mobility. The box is also turned at an angle, and Brown looks more like a jack-in-the-box beginning to pop up than an exhausted fugitive. Still's book was widely reviewed from 1872 onwards and reprints from it appeared in many newspapers, often featuring excerpts from Brown's story or drawings of his box; it therefore reintroduced Brown's heroic story to members of the U.S. public, three years before his arrival stateside.9Upon his arrival in the U.S., Brown rapidly began carving out a performance career. Newspaper reports indicate that Brown lived and performed in the U.S. (in New England and until or at which he to living first in and performing in until into Toronto in where he until his death in out a life as a was In the first years in New England, Brown to his performances to a U.S. In New England Brown had take their on and that Brown as a or in the U.S. in this but the of art forms it sense that Brown would performance first U.S. performance that I in on 1875, just after he had with his in New at and the was not Box Brown his the to which was more than he Yet a performance just a few later in to been with more article that Brown is for several in that in the following and that Brown in and large he should be of the time in the and even in to for his The that Henry Box Brown, is a of his escape from to Philadelphia in a box, is for an in Brown was a on in this but for a of years has been giving in England, which are to in the in a the in the the that Brown's is a of his escape from to Philadelphia in a in Brown is still by his The article also to his Brown, long would be by many who in of to his in his of the of his in by and like in the In Brown to a of the who in to in the to about into the to the of Brown's much earlier by box into from the living death of slavery. is that the Brown's of and in that never to Box Brown, but that he into his performances to and also began performance modes to to his New England example, on he a magic in which was to Brown as a who in years the his and that the performed it also a great on the box in which he on stage during this article Brown giving on in which his Annie years several of of In this it was not for as and perform with their and but the public also be by the that Annie was a appeared to performing in and he several Brown was in where his magic, but also a performance the of long of one of his published in a American on Brown's a Henry Box Brown an at the The first part of the performance of a of in and performed in a which was to the on the which is in and H. Box Brown in an entirely Brown and the as by the and the of the by Annie Brown, to with the performance by . . many who that that was in a must a be who in his performance that is as and at the that he is a in performances that as while also as with the via in Brown of a so to Brown performing with his but a to one of magic a for by In this a from a a a of and a that two of for and a to of and even a to the entailed a of from a at a out from while an the them up through a large in the and Brown's had or via a to to two and of into to a also Brown's own his of a postal of escape and in this often in of enslavement and over which Brown to example, in a performance in in he an of or more of the of this would be up in and and then later in the Brown's of this of and then his would in his with his from had performed a in England for to March with a named In the U.S., Brown's spouse as as on the of the in In Jane would be with turned from the while Brown would out into the and they would to which Jane would then without The a that must so that a by Brown to Jane as do I in my for example, an is would be or to out the Yet this was in a with so that it like Jane and Henry had some of with or that Jane the into a or and and the had and as well as a performance in on one H. Box Brown, who from in 1849 in a box, a in the last He this in the where magic, and be Although Brown's history of enslavement is the focus on magic, and that and magic, of performance with are the acts several more performances in at the of In the Brown and his performed a that entailed and Brown would the box he in and into it before the As late as Brown was still into and out of his that over the years during which Brown performed in from 1850 to 1875, he to in a from his history of Yet I would that than him from his history of magic, and Brown a of over this it into art while not political Brown's into his box, for example, the of slavery, of living in the of of a and his of the that the socio-political that not only slavery, but also and Brown's that is still an and freedom In into Brown a radical content for this In a more and magic and which Brown over an the also from the and into the of enslaved and enslaved Brown this of enslavement into a while his over and the of enslavement via magic, and modes of through which Brown and the of enslavement was through the of until Brown had performances in and and and it be said that he had large in New England in this he continued to the he on are in from this time to his (figure Brown as he this that he has at three that be into as he Box Brown of the H. Brown a of and the an to his in or to an in which he has the of three the of slavery, of the by the of slavery, and who has as the this the about it or performing it (in the and a who still not be from this the of the Brown and via a of and slavery, that the public and of a of with a sense of over the of their a is with because it as memories to to be and who upon the and the of the of be so traumatic that it a a and a of of that Brown's of his and unboxing are a of the of this also that Brown has learned to the of the of enslavement via The in the box the while his Brown and as an African a and of traumatic is also Brown's history of his escape via a that his magic with involving as the in Brown perform and box as well as a through a of again Brown is in with and a he and through and the The of the postal crate the in it via Brown's a box and in his and as he a through several is in this to is through Brown be his own history of through in many and of his a box has and as it not just a but that Brown and this first in most in as it an by the of by Brown to many of his over a to from this that Brown's was widely in and New and are in and New (figure The that the from and many this in large that Brown was performing the African in over New continued to perform in New England until they then on to and The last performance from the years in New England that their was well it did not a large On 1878, The that well known H. Brown, known as Box be giving an at for three by a the The and on 1878, also lists two performances by Brown, but are a and spent in the on to where they than well a large the by Box Brown in last the on to and of a nature than of this and are to the the continued to to out a living through their with example, in the reports that Box Brown is to an in the this of ventriloquism, and a and that Brown is who from many years in a Brown and even at this to a Yet he is as the reports just a on Brown performed some at the last The was On the and that by at the was the New England was a and home to in 1849 where he began his and performing had many of his and abolitionist and by it was that the of New England had of Box the and Brown made the to New England, after never to to his in of the U.S. and even the U.S., where he again be in a fresh Brown to more to where Box Brown lived and performed until at in this he also continued to perform in The on lists Brown as a for in In the was for or sometimes (in the of to a to the for Brown to be as an in of he would to be living Brown's Edward also lists his from as his of In Brown performed in on July and on and on and March for the Brown in the for lists H. Brown as a of the at and a of at The also lists Brown's Edward Brown, as the of the of that the was living in from July until at late after which they to lived in for a few years before to Toronto in in the many by Brown or with his also in an Brown had never performed in so he had some with he lived for of In from until Brown and over the and a with some of And Brown's to been in example, Brown on a magic on in as the was to the first for The great Box Brown, a and some not He was well and has before The is of more is the that Brown had been in the article in the on that H. Box Brown a and at the last to a in Brown magic and but also to a of that to the of part of In in England, Brown had to a via his and that it was as a Brown in the by way of this is as this was not his only into late Brown to himself this time via to the of the as has several African American and African like the and the performed in this often singing from the of enslavement and In Brown and his the of in jubilee singing, as they would also do as late as in On the that Box Brown with his of jubilee this and an in last The of Brown, his and and one of the in which Edward performing on stage with his The lists a performance on by Box Brown's The a an in the of an man He was by three members of the and they at the of Box Brown's to Brown as an in the of a to be and at is more is the that Brown is by three members of the Although the of that the individuals on stage are the article and it seems that three members of the would be and as Box Brown also was living and performing in during the The lists one by Box Brown on July three mile in the last in with the Box Brown in a for who was Box Brown's The two and but to a they not the to a by in England he had to to his a is the who the mile in or a to the and to Brown's and the and in this was The of this article with the to the nature of this about it and about performed many times in from until He was the modes in which he into some forms of In Brown was for a performance in The the in which he as well as some of his own magic he also to to his on a of the of and of the and a of with the of Brown the of a and a of or As in England, he to use and to the performance in He on for most he in England where the of of began in the late He also to on the of long studied by and by some to as and even Brown the of in his performance and he himself to be to on many learned as and in his of Box the he and the performances he it that magic and when in with his box, him one of his most and radical performance he turned into a of that he through the of visual and of as his box, and that he out in acts of and he was able to and his traumatic via long in on the in which Brown his own a more history of slavery, and a Brown and one of their in to a Brown about and his escape from the to Philadelphia in a box from which he was for many years He then to a of of of a stage of the and after which the a of which well by The and was more of than in The at the that a of in the to him a on and to do so in about two this Brown to his escape-by-box in the and of magic which to his as a and then the of with of than in The which to a of slavery, are in the late by Annie and of slavery. does this argues that of in the U.S. a of that to be by the The be said to time from through the of and the of but also up to via the In Brown's is made manifest as a that from and even from from not Richmond or part of the U.S. and it is and up into Brown and to this by the of which in time and into the of the them to a radical political Brown's is an from which white, or of the is most about the is the way that Brown's art with as he to stage it through the of forms that but also that in an that Brown this radical via his but he does not that Brown and his to Toronto in not that the last he and to Toronto than they are to Brown to perform in this large and or the as a modes of Annie Brown and Henry Brown at and did so for of time while living in I Brown's in Toronto to one in a from of that a by Brown Toronto in In Brown for to some in a property that they and to he fell through and was but he did not Brown, Jane in from or the of the this or about the first of the Box from one and became the of and the and then known as in the of at the or of The that a time after this became the of the and and Brown that to be to the The property known as became as in but it seems that Brown lived from until it also that Brown, in his was still performing while he lived in In Toronto and the of Toronto from the and he lists his as of and I also one performance for Brown in on when he with his and in with a The performance in is and as the only (if in of a performance by the Brown by I therefore from it in The part of the Brown two of and a of Henry Box Brown, to which he his to emerged and that he was to of I He said that he had been a and had in a one . . . the upon a of the few in the and through some which he said of the they the was of the of their but they would been the was not The a which he said was to him by man who had himself by to be of the . . The Brown more in and Brown, who a with a long that because he had been in an he had a in his He that should be seems and it was The is and Brown and his example, he that they a of as they out a and he that when in Jane was of the performance must therefore be understood as from this article about the Brown was himself in had in 1872 after an so it is that Brown had a from him he had it the way to England and in be an of Brown's own like his of an in in 1850 when he had to be as a but was the of who also in this Brown is said to a with a long in an to himself to his more the show's of several of the performances modes with performance in more Brown magic and several with Annie and the about with famous and freedom for my my then not a man who had been from through a postal the of out of of of or the of a would be the of the this is a song still with the as had in and Jane Brown's in was in and they lived until his death in this does not mean that Brown had been forgotten in the example, on 9, the published a long on the Underground and some of more and Box Brown's was this time with a of his unboxing (figure In this Brown looks and an to his box is and he from without visual this is the last representation of Brown during his long and as it is I to the history of Brown in this with an which is not but In of a from in the on Brown's story is by one of his in visual of the most of escape from it that of a named Henry Brown, who was shipped from to Philadelphia in a box two two and three The story of his as by a of his who on a in is to the that, of down to the at public Brown to and how to do it he to himself and shipped to in a . . . In due time the box arrived at but by a it was to the of the where it was had that Brown was but when the of the box was Brown out like a and would made a for but himself in the of his he to his in a He was and to this of Brown's (in by of his who on a in he to after his escape the years spent in England and the years spent in the And one of his for escape was down to the at public in Brown was never an to be and are in this of his escape. I wonder this is a of or Brown himself this again for is the story of Brown out of his crate like a and then giving to a is a of a man a jump into freedom and his escape into a spectacular Brown a jack-in-the-box who is out of his box, while still by to and it seems that the enslaved man who was property himself as a and was by this the box became a of for as he it to over the of his enslavement through representation and to this his so that he never be by his the box to a not only of and but also of and Brown's life as a therefore is a of a man who was by the box but who also to and the of his enslavement via his radical performance which the that from in the of slavery.

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