Physiological Effects of Oxidative Stress Caused by Saxitoxin in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) causes high toxicity by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, and it poses a major threat to marine ecosystems and human health worldwide. Our work evaluated the neurotoxicity and chronic toxicology of STX to Caenorhabditis elegans by an analysis of lifespan, brood size, growth ability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels, and the overexpression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). After exposure to a series of concentrations of STX for 24 h, worms showed paralysis symptoms and fully recovered within 6 h; less than 5% of worms died at the highest concentration of 1000 ng/mL for first larval stage (L1) worms and 10,000 ng/mL for fourth larval stage (L4) worms. Declines in lifespan, productivity, and body size of C. elegans were observed under the stress of 1, 10, and 100 ng/mL STX, and the lifespan was shorter than that in controls. With STX exposure, the productivity declined by 32–49%; the body size, including body length and body area, declined by 13–18% and 25–27%, respectively. The levels of ROS exhibited a gradual increase over time, accompanied by a positive concentration effect of STX resulting in 1.14–1.86 times higher levels compared to the control group in L4 worms. Conversely, no statistically significant differences were observed between L1 worms. Finally, after exposure to STX for 48 h, ATP levels and GFP expression in C. elegans showed a significant dose-dependent increase. Our study reports the first evidence that STX is not lethal but imposes substantial oxidative stress on C. elegans, with a dose-responsive relationship. Our results indicated that C. elegans is an ideal model to further study the mechanisms underlying the fitness of organisms under the stress caused by paralytic shellfish toxins including STX.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".