Bibliographic record
Abstract
The use of wood as structural elements in buildings is very common in Canada. However, because wood is combustible, the National Building Code of Canada restricts the use of wood to smaller buildings compared to noncombustible buildings. Wood to steel connections, composed of heavy timber, steel plates and bolts, are used to assemble wood components together. The fire performance of timber connections is complex due to the variety of connection types, geometries and fastener arrangements, as well as the properties of the materials under fire exposure. This study investigates the fire performance of timber-to-steel bolted connections under tension loading by conducting fire tests, developing finite element models, and creating simplified empirical calculation methods. Two types of timber-to-steel bolted connections considered in this study are wood-steel-wood (WSW) and steel-wood-steel (SWS). In the experimental testing of this research, a series of full-scale fire tests was conducted on these connections loaded in tension exposed to either the standard CAN/ULC-S101 or anon-standard time-temperature fire curves. Results showed that the fire resistance of all WSW and SWS connections were less than 45 min, which is a minimum fire-resistance rating for Canadian code compliance. The results also showed that the WSW specimens lasted longer during the tests compared to the SWS specimens of the same size. The comparison between the CAN/ULC-S101 tests versus the non-standard fire scenarios showed that the non-standard time-temperature curve is more severe. In the modelling part of this research, a three-dimensional finite element thermo-mechanical model of WSW and SWS connections was produced. Comparison between the model results and experimental testing indicated that both the thermal and structural models predicted the specimen temperatures and failure of the connections fairly well. Finally, an empirical calculation method was created to estimate the fire-resistance rating of WSW and SWS connections. This calculation method is based on fire-resistance methodology in CSA O86’s Annex B for large-cross-section wood elements and strength reduction factors at elevated temperatures from CSA S16’s Annex K for steel elements. The predictions of fire resistance using the empirical calculation method can accurately estimate the fire resistance of both WSW and SWS connections.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".