Border Encroachments: Comparing Cooperative Border Controls Along the EU’s External Frontier
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The aim of this article is to analyse the cooperation between European and neighbouring countries in controlling the outer borders of the EU. Based on a comparison of six case studies of cross-border cooperation – Italy-Albania, Italy-Libya, Spain-Morocco, Spain-Mauritania, Spain-Senegal, and Greece-Turkey – the article shows that border controls along the external frontier of the EU have not only become increasingly collaborative but, in most cases, have also involved an outward expansion of the border enforcement apparatus of European countries into the sovereign space of adjacent states such as their territorial waters and even their territories. The modalities and extent of these border encroachments have varied considerably, however. While several factors are identified which have impacted these extended border controls, the most important seems to be the power differential between the two countries concerned: the greater the power asymmetry – broadly defined in military and economic terms – between the two states involved in cooperative border controls, the more far-reaching the intrusion of border enforcement efforts into the weaker country’s jurisdiction has been.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.007 | 0.017 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.006 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.006 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.007 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".