Insights into the merits and market potential of yak meat

Yak meat is a source of protein, essential amino acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), especially n-3 PUFA, and is also low in fat content. Yaks emit less methane and have higher nitrogen utilization efficiency than cattle, making them environment-friendly animals. Yak meat is a high-potential protein alternative for addressing consumer concerns over animal welfare. Meat is considered the highest quality protein source of a healthy human diet. It is rich in essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Its consumption can improve nutritional balance in humans and is an important nutrition source, particularly in developing countries (Parlasca and Qaim, 2022). Globally, the percentage of regular meat eaters is much greater than others as shown by different organizations (Figure 1). Over the past several years, worldwide meat consumption has enormously escalated due to increasing population growth and average individual incomes in average-income countries of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. By 2031, the per capita consumption is predicted to increase by ~2%, while high-income countries will continue to obtain most of the proteins from animal sources (OECD/FAO, 2022). Therefore, there is still a need to continually increase meat production to meet the requirements of the growing global demand. Percentage of meat and non-meat eaters worldwide as estimated by different organizations. (ESRI: The Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin; Vegan olio: Russian website; Oxford: Our World in Data, UK). However, meat production and consumption have become a debated topic due to social, economic, environmental, health, and animal well-being problems (Parlasca and Qaim, 2022). The 2020 FAO meat production statistics revealed that globally, only the United States, Brazil, and China produce 50 to 100 million tons (MT) of meat (poultry, beef, pork, and mutton), followed by 10 to 50 MT from Russia and some European countries, 5 to 25 MT from Oceania as well as Southeast and Central Asia, 5 to 10 MT from countries like Canada, Mexico, and Argentina, while Africa and remaining regions account for 1,000 tons to 2.5 MT of the world production. The current livestock sector responsible for meat and other products releases approximately 14.5% of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gases worldwide (Gerber et al., 2013). Besides, to keep affordable operation expenses, some farming practices restrict animal activity and jeopardize their health and welfare. Such situations are more related and severe in intensive animal production systems neglecting animal welfare. As a result of this, a feasible, ethical, and healthy way of meat production is urgently required (Temple and Manteca, 2020). The pastoral systems (such as Asian highlands) are present in over 100 countries and are harsh as well as highly variable remote regions on earth which are often overlooked. Pastoralists use their livestock for vegetation recycling and obtain healthy food with high-quality protein for both domestic and international markets. Compared with intensive livestock production systems, the footprint of extensive pastoralism systems may have a minimal impact (Manzano et al., 2021). Yaks (Bos grunniens) are remarkable animals living in the Asian highlands serving over 40 ethnic communities. They are foremost grazing creatures at altitudes between 3,000 and 5,000 m above sea level. The vast pastures of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) and the area covering the Himalayan Mountain range are home to millions of yak (Shah et al., 2023). Around 16 million yaks are distributed in 10 central Asian countries among which about 95% are raised in China. These exotic animals have finely adjusted to the brutal surroundings of the rangelands, and are crucial in ecological and livelihood sustainability, food and nutrition safety, socio-economic advancement, and ethnicity as well as culture (Jing et al., 2022). Resources such as meat, milk, fibers, leather, and fuel (dung) are obtained from yak for the locals. They are also convenient for transporting goods and plowing and are crucial in many spiritual and traditional rituals. Yak meat is a staple product for the highlanders and is of good quality, rich in protein, essential amino acids (EAA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA; particularly n-3 PUFA), and low in fat content (Hao et al., 2019; Shah et al., 2023). Besides, animal welfare practices are urged to maintain the health, comfort, safety, and care of meat/milk-producing animals. Pain, fear, and a distress-free environment for animals are also basic necessities of animal welfare (Keeling et al., 2019). In this context, yaks are multipurpose animals that provide the highlanders mainly with milk, meat, wool, and dung fuel as well as are essential for transportation. At high altitudes, yaks can freely move and graze in a conventional transhumance pattern on the grasslands without any restrictions (Figure 2) unlike those imposed within intense animal production systems, where animal movement and behavior are highly restricted (Temple and Manteca, 2020). In addition, yak raising is also generally antibiotic-free and they are handled with immense care by the herders due to their outlook as family members and traditional importance (Shah et al., 2023). All these factors are closely linked to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, yak has enormous potential for organic meat production due to its natural production environment, animal welfare practices, and value-added products. It can serve as a suitable meat protein alternative for addressing the negative effects of intensive meat production systems (Xu and Grumbine, 2014). This paper details the nutritional quality of yak meat and tends to show that it is comparable with the common cattle and sheep meats to serve as alternative meat. The environmental significance and benefits of raising yaks for its products have also been explained to showcase their high potential. It further discusses the market potential of yak meat and the challenges in its large-scale production. The transhumance, production system, and traditional importance of yaks in the Asian highlands. Meat is a rich source of macro as well as micro-nutrients and provides essential amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals vital for healthiness. Particularly, yak meat has lower fat and higher protein percentage, as well as is rich in essential amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals (Shah et al., 2023). It is a suitable alternative to the existing commercial cattle and sheep meat based on its comparable nutritional qualities (Figure 3). Raw meat quality (longissimus muscles) of yak and other ruminants (1 to 3 years of age) based on physiochemical composition (a), minerals (b), fatty acids (c), and amino acids (d) profiles. SFA: saturated fatty acid; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid; EAA: essential amino acid; NEAA: nonessential amino acid; TAA: total amino acid. The protein content illustrates the nutritive muscle quality. The amount of protein in yak meat (21.6%) is similar to Angus (21.5%) and sheep (20%) (Figure 3a). Fat gives consistency and fruitiness and also contains flavor and fat-soluble vitamins. Yak meat has been reported for its low-fat content (1%) in comparison with other meat sources such as Angus (4.42%) and sheep (2%) (Jukna and Valaitienė, 2012; Somogyi et al., 2015). High-fat consumption has been associated with cancers such as colon and stomach cancers. They have more calories as compared to protein or carbs and thus fatty cuts of meat can increase dietary calories and/or cholesterol which can impose side effects in excess (Yang and Yu, 2023). Thus, the low-fat content in yak meat makes it desirable. The content of minerals, amino acids, and fatty acids is responsible for the nutritional qualities, as well as the flavor and taste properties of meat (Parlasca and Qaim, 2022). Minerals are important ingredients displaying the nutritiveness of a food. Meat is rich in iron and zinc, and their deficits may occur in non-meat diets. Yak meat is a rich source of both micro and macro-elements and is comparable to other meat types such as beef and sheep (Figure 3b). It has high potassium concentrations (3.38 g/kg), followed by sodium (0.80 g/kg) and zinc (33.4 mg/kg). Yak meat was reported to be a rich source of iron (23.3 mg/kg) in comparison with Angus (17.2 mg/kg), but was slightly lower than sheep (26 mg/kg) (Luo et al., 2006; Somogyi et al., 2015; Belhaj et al., 2021). Fatty acids serve several biological functions (such as signaling, stabilization, hormone synthesis, and formation of cellular membranes) beneficial for human health (Calder, 2015). Yak meat has an equivalent SFA content with sheep and Angus, MUFA is almost similar to Angus but lower than sheep, while PUFA is comparable with sheep and higher than Angus (Figure 3c). The PUFA content in yak meat has been reported to be 15.9%, while that in Angus beef and sheep mutton is 6.09% and 14.4%, respectively (Duckett et al., 2009; Hao et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2022). PUFA has been linked with anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory properties, particularly n-3 PUFA. The PUFA/SFA ratio of yak meat is 0.37 which corresponds to the FAO standards for healthy dietary (0.4). In addition, the n-6/n-3 ratio of yak (2.61) is slightly higher than beef (1.65) but almost the same as mutton (2.14) and is closer to the standard requirements of FAO (4) (Figure 3c). The high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA is considered unhealthy in bowel diseases and coronary heart disease, especially blood lumps development triggering a heart attack (Trebatická et al., 2020). Therefore, it is recommended to have a ratio of <4 (McDaniel, et al. 2010). A good quality protein composed of all essential amino acids is also an important factor in meat quality. Yak meat has a slightly higher content of essential amino acids such as histidine, isoleucine, and leucine than Angus and sheep meats. Lysine and Phe+Tyr are the most abundant essential amino acids in yak meat (Figure 3d). According to the model criteria of the FAO, the composition of amino acids should be 40% for EAA/TAA and >60% for EAA/NEAA. Relatively, yak meat has 45% EAA/TAA and 81.7% EAA/NEAA. The amino acid could also be estimated on the basis of protein constitution by evaluating the amino acid score (AAS). Except for tryptophan, the score of amino acids was lower than that proposed by FAO, while other essential amino acids were higher (Luo et al., 2006). These suggest that yak meat is a source of high and superior-quality protein. Although yak meat has a comparable quality with Angus beef and sheep mutton, it can be preferred more due to its environmental benefits. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2023 has stated that CH4 is a 25 times more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide at trapping heat and contributing to global warming. Based on the 2020 estimation from the EPA, worldwide CH4 emissions from ruminant livestock and agricultural sectors constituted 37% and cattle were recorded as major contributors to CH4 emissions which excluded other livestock. About 1.5 billion cattle (such as bulls/cows and Angus) are particularly raised for meat production, which releases 231 billion pounds of CH4 into the atmosphere per year (EPA, 2020). A study estimated that cattle produce 3.2 to 4.2 g of CH4/kg W0.75via grazing, whereas yaks release only 1.7 g of CH4/kg W0.75 because the long-term survival of yaks in extreme weather and forage deficient conditions has evolved their genomes and nutrient metabolic capacity (Mi et al., 2017). According to the literature, the CH4 emission (11.6 g/kg DMI) of yak is also lower than Angus (21.6 g/kg DMI) and sheep (19.5 g/kg DMI), as shown in Figure 4. Enteric CH4 emission of yak and other major protein meat-producing ruminant animals (Beauchemin and McGinn, 2006; Van Lingen et al., 2021; Shi, 2022). In ruminants, urea is imperative for nitrogen, and its recycling is important for nitrogen metabolism and homeostasis. Compared to cattle, yaks use and excrete a smaller amount of nitrogen. In addition, yaks digest and preserve nitrogen more than cattle, even when the dietary nitrogen intake is low (Zhou et al., 2017). Lower nitrogen utilization in cattle has been correlated with the profusion of ruminal bacteria (such as Prevotellaceae and Lactobacillaceae) which enhances nitrogen excretion in urine and manure via protein degradation (Carvalho Alves et al., 2021). Besides, excess nitrogen in the atmosphere is known to cause acid deposition, eutrophication, human respiratory problems, and climate change (De Vries, 2021). In this context, the nitrogen metabolism of yaks has shown that “nitrogen-saving” is their characteristic feature to survive low nitrogen intake in extremely long-term low temperatures (Figure 5). Thus, yaks can be characterized as nitrogen-saving, low-carbon-emitting, and environment-friendly animals with high animal welfare potential. Nitrogen utilization of yak and cattle (Zhou et al., 2017). The nutritional properties of yak meat are matched well with a healthy dietary requirement of humanity that allows producing high value-added functional food products. Yaks are suitable for the environment due to low methane emissions and low nitrogen excretion and thus for sustainable meat production. One yak (3 to 3.5 years old) slaughter can produce ~37% of boneless meat by weight (~60 kg of meat from 160 kg yak) and the rest is considered a waste. However, the slaughter waste of yak is also utilized in several ways leading to a “zero-waste” production system, thereby contributing to an eco-friendly slaughter (Figure 6). The products and goods obtained or made from waste have very high economic value in the commercial markets, further increasing the market potential of yak and its meat. Apart from this, a good level of animal welfare is a common requirement for an ever-increasing number of meat consumers, especially in developed countries (Temple and Manteca, 2020). High animal welfare is a distinctive feature of yak production, as the herders view yak as family members. All these factors together reduce the negative impacts on the health, environment, and animal welfare in meat production which is a matter of concern for consumers. Zero-slaughter waste strategy: Ways to use the human inedible yak slaughter waste. However, yak production in the Asian highlands is undergoing an unprecedented change and challenges exist both inside and outside of the yak production system. Outside the yak production system, challenges are mainly from the economic viewpoint, consumer perceptions, policies, climate change, and the continuous trade-offs in different dimensions. Although the advantages and potential of yak meat are outstanding, the farming profit margin is minimal, which is barely enough to support the herders’ livelihoods. It is mainly due to yak meat’s limited access to the markets for distant selling. However, initiatives have been taken at the government level which is expanding the yak meat industry. Yak slaughter plants have also been constructed in the QTP that can produce 486,000 tons of yak carcasses annually, with a net meat weight of ~388,800 tons, of which >60% is consumed by the highlanders, and the rest is distributed outside the plateau (Cao et al., 2023). Other hurdles in the improved income of herders are sales only in local areas with the same price as beef and variations in the availability of yak between regions and countries. Additionally, action to improve consumer cognition of both yak and its meat is needed to effectively gain access to the food supply chain. The development and manufacturing standards for yak meat products are also urged to ensure consistent product quality. Moreover, the high Asian ecosystems are increasingly vulnerable and sensitive to global climate change. The highlands are experiencing warmer environments, influenced precipitation patterns, decreased water availability, frequent droughts, and an increase in natural disasters, which has added stress to yak production. Warming causes discomfort to yak, making their migration and herding more difficult. It can reduce grassland area and cause a decline in forage availability and quality through shrub encroachment (Jing et al., 2022). Therefore, an improvement in the understanding of the indigenous people towards climate change and integration of traditional knowledge and new technologies to enhance the yak production system is obligatory to cope with climate change. Besides, difficulties also exist in yak production itself, which include degradation of yak germplasm, rangeland degradation, forage shortage during the cold season (October to next May), and the mindset of herders. Inbreeding and starvation have caused a 30% decrease in the body weight of grown yaks as compared to that in the 1980s (Long et al., 2008). Frequent exchange of germplasm is needed among areas and countries, and new technologies of breeding also need to be adopted to improve the performance of yak production. More practices and research on feeding management models and forage supply strategies are highly desired to improve the production efficiency of yak and promote the restoration of the rangeland ecosystem. From the labor side, declining of yak herders and livestock professionals from the young generation is another factor in determining future perspectives of yak production. A significant proportion of herders do not wish their children to continue to engage in yak farming in the future, which further influences production (Dorji et al., 2020). New yak farming and cooperative business models need to be researched, innovated, and practiced. Additionally, the increasing depredation of yaks by wildlife cannot be overlooked either, this conflict has impeded the motivation of herders to farm yak continuingly. It is heartening that action has already been taken on 15 March 2022 by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in New York, whereby the year 2026 was unanimously declared the International Year of Rangelands & Pastoralists (IYRP). 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