Relaxation of the electro-optic response in thin-film lithium niobate modulators
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
Thin-film lithium niobate (TFLN) is a promising electro-optic (EO) photonics platform with high modulation bandwidth, low drive voltage, and low optical loss. However, EO modulation in TFLN is known to relax on long timescales. Instead, thermo-optic heaters are often used for stable biasing, but heaters incur challenges with cross-talk, high power, and low bandwidth. Here, we characterize the low-frequency (1 mHz to 1 MHz) EO response of TFLN modulators, investigate the root cause of EO relaxation and demonstrate methods to improve bias stability. We show that relaxation-related effects can enhance EO modulation across a frequency band spanning 1kHz to 20kHz in our devices – a counter-intuitive result that can confound measurement of half-wave voltage ( V π ) in TFLN modulators. We also show that EO relaxation can be slowed by more than 10 4 -fold through control of the LN-metal interface and annealing, offering progress toward lifetime-stable EO biasing. Such robust EO biasing would enable applications for TFLN devices where cross-talk, power, and bias bandwidth are critical, such as quantum devices, high-density integrated photonics, and communications.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it