Morphodynamics of glaciovolcanic caves—Mount Rainier, Washington, USA
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The twin summit craters of Mount Rainier, Washington, USA host the largest known glaciovolcanic caves in the world and at 4382 m, the highest elevation caves in the USA. The caves are formed in ice at the glacier-rock interface by volcanogenic gases and atmospheric advection. However, the way in which discrete caves are formed and evolve remains poorly understood. Surveys of the cave systems in 1970−1973 and 1997−1998 in both the West and East Craters documented cave passage morphology. Field expeditions from 2014−2017 comprehensively surveyed the Rainier summit caves and undertook thermal imaging and temperature monitoring. Significant changes had occurred. In the East Crater, documented cave length has nearly doubled since 1973 to 3593 m of passage spanning 144 m of depth, revealing a new subglacial lake, and now nearly circumnavigating the East Crater. Of the reported increase in length, some 600 m of the mapped passage is possibly newly formed. Across 47 years of observation, certain sections of the cave appear to be preserved in form and position through time, while others are more actively being lost or forming. Conserved passages are generally sub-horizontal, passages following the curvilinear crater contours, show low temperature variability, and are dependent on perennial fumarolic activity or distributed heat flux emanating from warm bedrock and sediment floors. Transient passages are smaller diameter dendritic passages following the slope of the ice-rock interface towards entrance zones and normal to the circum-crater passage. They also show higher variability in temperature and airflow and are subject to seasonal weather and mechanical collapse, which may contribute to transience. Additional research is required to confirm the mechanisms maintaining conserved passages and formation of transient passages.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".