A Machine Learning Model to Predict Cyberattacks in Connected and Autonomous Vehicles
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) are largely at the experimental stage. Their successful deployment and field implementation require a careful consideration of their vulnerabilities to cyberattacks. The primary security vulnerability is in the controller area network (CAN) protocol, which permits communication among electronic control units in CAVs. To address this vulnerability and mitigate cyberattacks, machine learning (ML) algorithms can be developed for intrusion detection in CAV's CAN protocol. In this research, the data structure of certain experimental datasets on message injection attack from the Hacking and Countermeasure Research Lab is examined. A random forest classifier-based ML model is developed owing to its efficiency in predicting cyberattacks on CAVs consisting of over 3 million datasets. A number of procedures within the Python programming environment are employed to clean the dataset before performing the prediction. The prediction for intrusion detection is performed with a 70:30 split of the training: testing data with a random state of 11 and number of estimators as 200. The accuracy is found to be over 92% for all three scenarios in performing the prediction. The model can be deployed in real-time investigation of cyberattacks in CAVs if real-time data were available. The data cleaning method developed in this study can be applied in other ML applications consisting of large datasets, such as credit card fraud and drug discovery, to name a few.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".