A Comparison of Police Use of Force by Male and Female Officers in Canada: Rates, Modalities, Effectiveness, and Injuries
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Research has reported inconsistent findings with respect to how female and male police officers use force. This study examined this issue in a Canadian context. Use of force data over 9 years were collected from a large Canadian police agency. The results demonstrated that, overall, female officers used force less frequently than male officers relative to the number of female and male officers within the participating police agency. Female officers had lower odds of using physical control “hard” options (e.g., stuns and strikes) and higher odds of using intermediate weapons (e.g., conducted energy weapon) compared with male officers. Female officers also generally reported less effectiveness, more injuries to themselves, and fewer injuries to subjects related to their use of force compared with male officers. Literature on police use of force and social role theory are used to help explain the findings, and recommendations for improving outcomes in police–public interactions are suggested.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".