Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract The chapter provides an overview of the evolution of tourism from the 19th-century expansion of ‘leisure’ time and the subsequent establishment of modern tourism structures and novel actors in the industrializing countries of the UK, Western Europe, and the United States, to the sector’s global expansion during the 20th and early 21st centuries. It highlights, on the one hand, the various factors driving change, notably the development of transport technologies, while stressing the persistence and adaptability of certain crucial actors, most notably the travel agent, and certain ways of travelling, such as the earlier Grand Tour, which have engendered more recent versions of similarly ‘curated’ and personalized travel. It also points to the development of a largely association-based governance system, which reached the international level after World War II. The chapter begins with an overview of debates in the relevant literature about the nature of the ‘industry’ and whether tourism warrants the use of this term, which is questioned by the more critical scholarship, although it remains common among applied researchers and promoters of tourism trying to stress its economic importance.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.004 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.007 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".