Advances in Understanding the Wettability of the Viking Formation
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract This paper presents a comprehensive laboratory protocol to evaluate and characterize the in-situ rock and fluid samples from the Viking Formation in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). The experiments are performed in four stages. In stage 1, we conduct Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) techniques on the dry end-pieces of the plugs for pore-scale visualization and compositional analysis. In stage 2, we measure the contact angle (CA) of the equilibrated oil and brine droplets on the surface of the rock samples in the presence of air, and that of the equilibrated oil droplets on oil-saturated rock samples immersed in brine and DIW (deionized water). In stage 3, we perform co-current spontaneous imbibition experiments on a set of twin plugs to compare the rate of brine and oil uptake by capillary suction. In stage 4, we conduct counter-current imbibition experiments on oil-saturated plugs to evaluate oil recovery by DIW and brine. Co-current spontaneous imbibition results show excess brine uptake compared with oil during the early times (first 120 hours). The XRD results show the presence of 11.66 wt. % pore-filling clay minerals (10 wt.% kaolinite and 1.66 wt. % illite) in the selected rock samples. These clay minerals are dispersed in the pore structure of the selected rock samples, as observed in the SEM images taken from these samples. Therefore, it can be concluded that water adsorption by pore-filling clay minerals is the main reason for the excess brine uptake compared with oil at the early times. Although brine imbibes faster and more than oil at the early times, the final imbibed volume of oil is higher than brine, which indicates the presence of small hydrophobic pores with more affinity towards oil than brine. The CA of the equilibrated oil droplet on the surface of the oil-saturated reservoir rock immersed in brine is 114.0°, while that in DIW is 70.43°, indicating that DIW enhances the water-wetness of the reservoir rock by 43.6°. The results of the counter-current imbibition experiments on the oil-saturated plugs show that oil recovery by DIW is 33% of the initial oil volume in the plug, which is 5% more oil than that by the reservoir brine, primarily due to more significant osmotic potential.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".