Bee venom genes predominately originated in ancestors of sawfly hymenopterans before the aculeate stinger evolved
Bibliographic record
Abstract
To study convergent trait evolution, venoms that evolved multiple times in animals are ideal models. However, only few animal groups are studied in detail at the genomic level to understand toxin gene evolution. Hyper-diverse hymenopterans are the most speciose venomous animals, but the origin of their toxin genes has been largely overlooked despite their adaptive significance. We combined genomics with proteo-transcriptomics to compile an up-to-date list of core bee venom proteins and investigated the origin of 11 toxin genes in 30 hymenopteran genomes. We found that bee venom toxins originated predominantly by single gene co-option combined with gene duplication. Only melittin and the new venom protein family anthophilin appear unique to the bee lineage. Other toxins already existed in earliest hymenopterans before aculeates evolved their stinger. We elucidate here toxin gene origin at the genomic level during the mega-radiation of hymenopterans with general implications on the evolution of gene function.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.010 | 0.009 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".