Bibliographic record
Abstract
As I argued in my Gentle Civilizer of Nations, modern international law arose in the last third of the nineteenth century. At the time, as well as long into the twentieth century, its ideological centre lay in the concept of ‘civilization.’ This was a profoundly hierarchical notion that projected a particular developmental frame for all nations. That concept was embedded in a certain theory about history and statehood that was particularly well developed in German public law. However, by the mid-nineteenth century, another view to think about law, politics, and statehood was developing in Europe that focused on the concept of ‘society.’ This had its British, French, and Italian versions, but I want to focus on a German approach that, at one point, became a rival to old Staatslehre and the historical school. This had also an internationalist variant that was critical of old formalist public law and worked with a notion of ‘international society’ ( internationale Gemeinschaft). In this article, I want to examine the ascent of this notion, the brief moment when it seemed to provide a modern alternative to older ways in which to think about the laws of statehood and the international realm and its eventual demise at the time of the establishment of the Institut de droit international in 1873.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.006 | 0.010 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.009 | 0.053 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.019 | 0.037 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.008 |
| Research integrity | 0.012 | 0.018 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".