Early Detection of Cyber-Physical Attacks on Electric Vehicles Fast Charging Stations Using Wavelets and Deep Learning
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Transportation electrification plays an important role in the operation of the smart grid through the integration of the electric vehicle fast charging stations (EVFCSs), which allows the electric vehicles to provide regulation services to the grid through the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept. However, such an integration makes smart grid assets prone to cyber vulnerability threats. In this paper, a cyber-physical attack detection approach is developed to early detect such attacks. The proposed approach combines the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) and the convolution neural network (CNN) to provide an effective detection technique. The proposed detection approach has undergone rigorous testing that considered 420 realistic operational scenarios. Unlike in previous work, the proposed detection approach was found to be effective in automatically learning the salient features from the data as well as identifying the frequency bands that hold such features and using them in the classification process. Furthermore, this work investigated the cyber-attack detection accuracy using different time resolutions of smart meters. The results have shown that the proposed approach effectively detects cyber-physical attacks with an accuracy of 99.76% and a low computational time of 1.8 seconds.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".