The Effect of Parenthood on Care Workers’ Earnings: Exploring Identity Mobilization’s Applicability
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The parenthood wage gap is well-documented in professional work, but we know little about parenthood’s effects on earnings among care workers. As employers may use stereotypes linked to parental identity to determine rewards, care workers may leverage their parental identity to signal appropriateness for work, possibly leading to higher, rather than lower, earnings. At the same time, gender and racial identity may signal different levels of appropriateness to employers according to how they fulfill employer-held gender and racial stereotypes. Using data from the American Community Survey (ACS), we test the applicability of identity mobilization to show that mothers experience wage penalties compared to fathers and non-mothers, while fathers experience wage premiums. Additionally, mothers of color experience smaller penalties than White women, while fathers of color experience smaller premiums compared to White fathers. We also show differences across occupations. Overall, this study showcases the ways in which gender and racial inequality remain entrenched in society, rejecting identity mobilization’s applicability to care work wage gaps.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.018 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".