A Pilot Study of Deep Learning-Based Monocular Depth Estimation from Fundus Photographs
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of a generalizable deep learning (DL)-based system with no a priori knowledge of fundus photographs to generate monocular depth map information about optic disc structures from this imaging modality. Images of 30 stereo pairs of fundus photographs centered on the optic disc of 30 subjects were analyzed with this DL system to generate monocular depth maps using zero-shot cross-dataset transfer. These maps were registered onto reference standard depth maps derived from optical coherence tomography. Accuracy of the DL system was assessed by the root of mean squared error (RMSE) between the estimate and reference standard. 47% of the total images from the dataset were successfully processed, with mean RMSE of 0.081. Our findings demonstrate that single image, monocular depth estimation with a generalizable DL system using zero-shot cross-dataset transfer applied to retinal color fundus photographs is feasible and has potential. Received: 24 July 2024 | Revised: 30 September 2024 | Accepted: 10 October 2024 Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to this work. Data Availability Statement The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Iowa Carver College of Medicine at https://medicine.uiowa.edu/eye/inspire-datasets, reference number [15]; in Github at https://github.com/isl-org/MiDaS, reference number [18]; in PyTorch at https://pytorch.org/tutorials/beginner/transfer_learning_tutorial.html, reference number [19]; in ImageJ Docs at https://imagej.net/software/imagej2/, reference number [23]. Author Contribution Statement Rony Gelman: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration. Michael D. Abràmoff: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".