Single pass saltwater disinfection using low voltage electrolysis: Potential implications for aquaculture systems
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Open net pen saltwater aquaculture faces criticism due to the potential transmission of pathogens between fish farms and to wild stocks. To address this issue and improve the sustainability and growth of net pen farming, closed containment farms have been suggested, but the cost and feasibility of disinfecting large volumes of water in these types of farms is problematic. We explored the potential for using electrolysis to disinfect saltwater in a flow-through system with water flow velocities between 47 and 105 cm/s. This was the first step to investigating whether this technology could be applied to saltwater flow-through closed containment systems. Various voltage levels (3.3–9.0 V) were applied to generate chlorine from saltwater. We found the disinfection properties of the system varied with wattage (i.e., voltage × ampere), velocity of water flow over the electrodes, salinity of water, and residual chlorine contact time. Wattage was highly correlated with the production of chlorine, and this relationship was dependent on water flow ( p = 0.0398). A slower flow velocity led to higher chlorine concentration, and the effect was more pronounced at higher wattages. Using a zero-inflated negative binomial regression model, we found the probability of full disinfection was increased by increasing wattage ( p < 0.001) and the residual chlorine contact time ( p < 0.001). The level of disinfection (count model) suggested the number of bacteria in the treated samples was determined by the interaction between wattage and flow ( p = 0.0056) and the interaction between wattage and salinity ( p < 0.001). The bacterial count was also associated with residual chlorine contact time ( p < 0.001). The results of this study, although preliminary and limited in their scale, offering a potential solution for disinfecting large volumes of seawater, which could make closed containment fish farming in the ocean viable for reducing bacterial transmission within a farm and to wild fish stocks. • An electrolysis system using Ru-Ir titanium electrodes was able to disinfect water flowing at 28 to 62 L/min. • Chlorine levels in our electrolytic cell ranged between 0.26 and 4.67 ppm depending on wattage and water flow used. • Disinfection properties of our system was dependent on wattage used, water flow, salinity, and chlorine contact time. • Culturable bacteria were immediately inactivated using 50 watts of electricity even at a water flow of 60 L/m.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".