Building national parks to protect key ecosystems in China

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) integrates national parks into the broader system of protected natural areas.1 National parks are designated to protect large areas of natural or near-natural ecosystems, with the primary goal of conserving large-scale ecological processes along with associated species and ecosystem characteristics.1 These parks are typically characterized by their large size, well-functioning natural ecosystems, unique national significance, and symbolic value. They often feature remarkable biodiversity, national pride in biology and environmental heritage, magnificent natural landscapes, and cultural significance. National parks prioritize nature conservation while providing opportunities for public engagement, including spiritual enjoyment, scientific research, environmental education, and tourism. These activities occur in designated areas under strict protection to ensure sustainability. In China, national parks are approved, established, and managed by the state with clearly defined boundaries. Their primary goal is to protect large-scale, nationally representative natural ecosystems while promoting scientific conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources, including specific coastal and marine protected areas.2 These parks are of critical importance to the natural ecosystem, showcasing the most spectacular natural landscapes, the most valuable natural heritage, and the richest biodiversity reserves. They are characterized by extensive protected areas, intact ecological processes, global significance, national symbolism, and widespread public recognition. China's national park system is supplemented by natural reserves and parks with a focus on protecting large-scale representative key ecosystems while providing opportunities for public engagement, such as nature education and experimental learning. In contrast, U.S.’s national parks are established to protect scenic landscapes, natural ecosystems, and historical sites and monuments. They serve distinct purpose, allowing different levels of public interaction while ensuring the preservation of resources for both present and future generations.3 U.S.’s national parks are designed as conservation areas and have evolved over time to encompass key ecosystems. These parks place a greater emphasis on balancing biological conservation with recreation, enabling a variety of public activities that do not harm the natural environment or cultural heritage. The U.S. approach employs diverse land use categories and conservation values, which have served as a reference for the development of China's emerging national park system. Despite their differences, both China's and U.S.’s national park systems aim to strike a balance between ecological conservation and public access. Recreation is permitted in some areas of national parks in both countries, but not universally, reflecting a shared commitment to protecting natural resources while allowing for public enjoyment. The restoration of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can provide numerous ecological, economic, and social benefits, including biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, resources supply, ecological educations, and the preservation of social and cultural values.4-7 In line with these goals, China has announced the “Master Plan for the Major Projects for the Protection and Restoration of National Key Ecosystems (2021–2035)”, which outlines a comprehensive strategy for conserving priority ecosystems through the establishment of three eco-zone and four shelterbelts to enhance natural ecosystem protection.8 By 2035, with the vigorous implementation of these major projects, significant improvements are expected in the condition of natural ecosystems, including forests, grasslands, deserts, rivers, lakes, wetlands, and oceans across the country. The envisioned outcome is a harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, with a forest coverage rate reaching 26%, a forest stock volume of 21,000,000,000 m3, and the stabilization of natural forests areas at around 200,000,000 hm2. This plan proposes the creation of nature reserves, collectively covering over 18% of China's land area, with national parks being the primary focus. It emphasizes the comprehensive protection of endangered wildlife, plants, and their habitats. To preserve natural and cultural heritage and resources, each country contributes uniquely to global conservation efforts through the establishment of national parks. By 2035, China's national park system is projected to be the largest in the world, encompassing 49 national park candidates. It will feature the richest diversity in protected ecological types and biodiversity with the most extensive coverage, including forests, grasslands, wetlands, and deserts (Table 1). In comparison, U.S. has a well-established national park system but covers a smaller percentage of its land area. In Britain, national parks occupy the largest percentage of land area at 12.7%, while Australia has the highest number of national parks. South Africa's national parks are notable for their unique ecosystems and specific conservation priorities. Japan has developed a robust network of national parks, effectively protecting rich biodiversity despite its limited land area. China's national parks adhere to the principles of prioritizing ecological protection, embodying national representation, and ensuring comprehensive public benefits. For example, in 2021, China established its first batch of five national parks covering an area of 230,000 km2 and safeguarding nearly 30% of the country's key terrestrial animals and plants species (Table 2, Figure 1).9-11 Adhering to the principles of ecological protection, national representation, and public welfare for all citizens, these national parks aim to preserve the authenticity and integrity of natural ecosystems, safeguard national ecological security, and provide a solid ecological foundation for building a beautiful China, where humans and nature coexist harmoniously. The initial 10 pilot national park systems in China (2016 to 2019) (a) and the first five national parks officially established in 2021 (b). According to the China's national parks plan, it will encompass natural ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, and deserts, protecting over 80% of the country's key wild animal and plant species and their habitats. The plan will also preserve numerous large-scale ecological corridors and key areas for the migration of international migratory birds, the seasonal movements of whales and dolphins, and the cross-border migration of terrestrial animals. China's national parks and U.S.’s national parks both serve the ecological conservation and provide public service. However, there are several key differences between them: (1) Philosophy and Purpose: China's national parks are founded on the principles that prioritize ecological protection, national representation, and public welfare with a strong focus on preserving the originality and integrity of natural ecosystems and scientific research. Public access is often restricted to ensure conservation. In contrast, U.S.’s national parks, managed by the National Park Service, have a long history of balancing preservation and recreation. They allow a broad range of visitor activities, emphasizing both environmental protection and public enjoyment. (2) Establishment and Representation: China's national parks, as outlined in the 14th Five-Year Plan, aim to create a system that protects significant natural ecosystems and cultural heritage. The U.S.’s national parks, established over a century ago beginning with Yellowstone in 1872, are symbols of the country's most iconic natural landscapes and historical landmarks. (3) Size and Number: China's national parks cover vast areas and are fewer in number, with plans to expand significantly and develop the world's largest national park system by 2035. The U.S. has a well-established network of 63 national parks, each featuring unique landscapes and ecosystems. (4) Community Involvement: Community involvement in China's national parks is still in its early stages, with efforts underway to balance conservation with the economic well-being of local residents. In the U.S., community involvement is more established, with local businesses, non-profit organizations, and residents playing active roles in park activities and conservation efforts. (5) Visitation, Accessibility, and Restrictions: Access to China's national parks is more regulated with certain areas designated for tourism and others strictly reserved for ecological protection. While some areas are open to the public for tourism and educational purposes, they are not completely closed off. This approach balances conservation with public access, allowing visitors to experience and learn about nature while fostering a sense of participation in its protection.12 U.S.’s national parks are generally more accessible, offering a wide array of facilities and services for visitors, catering to recreational use while promoting conservation. (6) Cultural and Natural Significance: Both countries' national parks aim to protect areas of cultural and natural importance, but the specific criteria and historical context differences, reflecting each nation's unique landscapes and cultural heritage. (7) Ownership, Management Structure, and Functional Differences: China's national parks are managed by National Forestry and Grassland Administration, which operate under the National Park Administration, and are state-owned and part of the country's natural protected areas.2 In contrast, U.S.’s national parks are overseen by the National Park Service (NPS), a bureau of the Department of the Interior. Owned and managed by the federal government, they represent one form of national conservation, supported by a well-established legal framework.12, 13 China's national parks are in the early stages of developing a sustainable funding model and often depend on local government support. They are also exploring eco-compensation mechanisms. In the U.S., the National Park System receives most of its funding from the federal government, supplemented by visitor fees, philanthropic donations, and concession fee.12, 13 (8) Businesses in National Parks: China's national parks prioritize ecological protection with strict regulations to minimize environment impact and prohibit explicit commercial activities within park boundaries. In contrast, businesses in U.S. and South Africa national parks are minimal and primarily located at the edges or within designated enclaves. This approach offers a potential reference for China's evolving national park system. (9) Nature Education and Visitor Experience: In China's national parks, nature education focuses on fostering children's connection with nature by improving learning outcomes through hands-on experiences and sensory engagement with the natural world.12 In U.S.’s national parks, nature education emphasizes providing environmentally and culturally compatible opportunities for spiritual enrichment, scientific research, education, recreation, and visitor engagement.12 Both China's and U.S.’s national parks share the goal of protecting and preserving significant natural areas. However, China's national parks are more centralized in their focus on ecological protection and public ecological benefits, while the U.S.’s national park system takes a more balanced approach, integrating conservation with recreation and public access. Overall, China's national parks face several challenges, including the conservation of natural resources, management structures, biodiversity monitoring, and community development. They are relatively new, fewer in number, and less well-established compared to U.S.’s national parks with lower levels of community involvement. The development of national parks serves as a vital symbol of a country's progress and civilization.2, 14 China's national parks will encompass its most important natural ecosystems, unique natural landscapes, essential natural heritages, and richest biodiversity. By 2035, China aims to complete the spatial layout of its national parks and establish a comprehensive national park system. The plan includes 49 national park candidates, covering approximately 1,100,000 km2, with about 990,000 km2 (i.e., 10.3% of the nation's land area) of the terrestrial space and 110,000 km2 of the marine area. These parks will protect more than 4200 species of vertebrates and over 22,600 species of higher plants, representing 51.2% and 57.8% of the total number of vertebrates and higher plants in China, respectively.11 However, compared to the terrestrial protected areas, China's coastal and marine protected areas within its national parks remain relatively small.10 China has established ecological corridors—passages connecting the main habitat patches of organisms—that facilitate the flow of species, genes, energy, and matter. These corridors are planned and managed with the consideration of climate change, playing a vital role in the development of national parks. Coastal and marine protected areas safeguard numerous large-scale ecological corridors, supporting natural migration patterns and routes for animals, key habitats for various species, and critical areas for international migratory birds. These regions, including marine ecological redline zones and biodiversity hotspots, are managed by the National Forestry and Grassland Administration and the National Park Administration. The creation of national parks in China aligns with the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. To enhance national parks development, China should focus on the following points: (1) Enhanced legislation and policy: Prioritize legal advancements, such as passing the draft National Park Law of the People's Republic of China in 2024 and strengthening policies that align with international standards.15 (2) Prioritization of ecological protection: Focus on maintaining ecological integrity and resource assessment. Reevaluate activities and facilities that may affect ecosystems, promote the protection of diverse ecosystems, expand nature reserves, and establish early warning and prevention systems for ecological risks. For example, Wuyishan National Park protects the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest ecosystem through ecological restoration projects (Figure 2). (3) Unified management standards: Implement a centralized governance system to address the challenges of fragmented management and ensure consistent standards across all parks. (4) Clarification of resource ownership: Ensure that the natural landscapes within national parks are publicly accessible and state-owned, with clear legal frameworks for resource management. (5) Innovation in operating management: Promote sustainable business models that prioritize ecological protection, including low-cost or free public access to parks. (6) Sustained scientific research and monitoring: Increase scientific research investment in national parks, study ecosystems, species resources, and environmental changes to provide a scientific basis for park management, and establish a comprehensive monitoring system for long-term monitoring of ecosystems, species populations, and environmental quality. (7) Develop nature education: Implement nature education initiatives to enhance the public's awareness of ecological protection and scientific literacy. For example, the Giant Panda National Park organizes educational activities to help the public understand the significance of protecting giant pandas and their habitats. (8) Increase infrastructures: Establish wildfire barrier maintenance infrastructures, eco-tourism infrastructures, and medical emergency infrastructures. (9) Promotion of public involvement: Engage local communities in park management, provide ecological compensation, employment support, and industrial development. In China's national parks, community involvement is still in its early stages. Local residents are given priority as ecological stewards, benefiting from the parks' creation through employment opportunities as rangers or conservationists. These stewards receive training in ecological preservation, effective resource management, and facilitating scientific research, fostering harmonious relationships between local communities and nature. This approach ensures the integration of local communities into conservation efforts, strengthening the relationship between protected areas and residents. It also transforms local residents from consumers into active environmental stewards. Additionally, China has established an ecological compensation mechanism to support both community development and conservation efforts, creating a win-win situation that balances ecological preservation with the well-being of local communities. Forest ecosystem restoration in Wuyishan National Park, the second pilot national park in China established in 2016 (Photo by Hai Huang and Dehuang Zhu). Looking ahead, China's national park system will focus on expanding to include diverse ecosystems, strengthening connectivity between parks, and improving management and conservation efforts. Additionally, China seeks to adopt global best practices in governance, spatial planning, and financing mechanisms to develop a world-class national park system. In China, the importance of involving the public in nature education within national parks is increasingly recognized. Efforts are being made to enhance the quality of nature education and encourage practical, hands-on experiences that guide visitors in understanding and appreciating nature. Moving forward, China will need a synergistic strategy for biodiversity conservation that aligns ex situ conservation efforts in national parks with in situ conservation in national botanic gardens. Ex situ conservation in national parks involves preserving species outside their natural habitats, while in situ conservation in national botanic gardens focuses on conserving species within their natural environments. These gardens serve as living repositories for species, providing a safety net for biodiversity. They can also be valuable for research, informing conservation strategies within national parks and supporting habitat restoration and species reintroduction efforts. The integration of national parks and national botanic gardens into a cohesive conservation strategy represents a forward-thinking approach that enhances China's global biodiversity conservation efforts. Dehuang Zhu: Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing–original draft; Writing–review and editing; Visualization. Chengzhen Wu: Writing–review and editing; Conceptualization; Methodology. Hai Ren: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing–review and editing. Dafeng Hui: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing–review and editing; Visualization. All authors thank the anonymous reviewers for constructive comments. The opinions expressed here are not official positions of authors' institutes.

Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.