Biosecurity measures reducing Salmonella spp. and hepatitis E virus prevalence in pig farms—a systematic review and meta-analysis
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Salmonella spp. and hepatitis E virus (HEV) are significant foodborne zoonotic pathogens that impact the health of livestock, farmers, and the general public. This study aimed to identify biosecurity measures (BSMs) against these pathogens on swine farms in Europe, the United States, and Canada. Overall, 1,529 articles from three scientific databases were screened manually and with the artificial intelligence (AI) tool ASReview. We identified 54 BSMs from 32 articles, primarily focused on Salmonella spp. control. Amongst the extracted BSMs, only five measures for Salmonella spp. control, namely, ‘acidification of feed’, ‘acidification of drinking water’, ‘rodent control’, ‘all-in and all-out production’, and ‘disinfection’ had sufficient observations to conduct a meta-analysis. Of these five, acidification and rodent control were found to be protective measures, that is, their summary odds ratios in the corresponding meta-analyses were lower than 1, indicating lower odds of Salmonella spp. presence on farms which implemented these BSM compared to farms which did not implement them (odds ratio [OR] around 0.25). All-in and all-out production showed a non-significant protective effect (OR = 0.71), while disinfection showed a statistically non-significant lack of association between disinfection and the presence of Salmonella spp. on the farm (OR = 1.03). For HEV, no meta-analysis could be performed. According to multiple articles, two BSMs were significantly associated with a lower risk of HEV presence, namely, disinfecting vehicles (OR = 0.30) and quarantining pigs before introducing them on the farm (OR = 0.48). A risk of bias assessment for each included article revealed a high risk in the majority of the articles, mainly due to selection and performance bias. This emphasises the lack of standardised, high-quality study designs and robust empirical evidence linking BSM implementation to pathogen reduction. The limited data available for meta-analysis, coupled with the high risk of bias (RoB) in the literature, highlights the urgent need for more substantial evidence on the effectiveness of BSMs in mitigating the transmission and spread of zoonotic pathogens, such as Salmonella spp. and HEV on pig farms.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".