Real-Time Moving Vehicle Counting and Speed Estimation Toward Efficient Traffic Surveillance
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper presents a Spatial-Temporal Diagram (STD) algorithm for real-time vehicle counting and speed estimation in camera-based traffic surveillance. The algorithm consists of four main steps: STD graph generation highlighting vehicles as peaks, graph refinement using Gaussian Mixture Model likelihood optimization, peak detection through RANdom SAmple Consensus model fitting, and traffic parameter computation. Testing on over 11 million video frames from diverse sources, including 511 highway cameras, NVIDIA AI City Challenge, and Next Generation Simulation datasets, demonstrated the algorithm’s robustness across varying illumination, weather conditions, and road infrastructures. The algorithm achieved average accuracies of 95.4%, 96.9%, and 96.1% for Precision, Recall, and F1-Score, respectively, outperforming traditional deep learning methods while requiring less computational resources.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".