Engineering Characteristics and Sustainable Utilization of Mine Tailings as Cemented Paste Backfill—A Critical Review
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The large-scale development of mining industry contributes trillions of dollars annually to the world economy through providing raw materials, such as metals, minerals, and aggregates. Nevertheless, landfilling and waste disposal of mine tailings, a by-product of the mining industry generated during the production of mineral resources, in tailings storage facilities without further treatment and any adopted environmental measures, has increasingly been identified to cause a negative impact on the environment and social community and required public attention to their safe disposal. In this paper, characterisation of various mine waste tailings (e.g., bauxite tailings or red mud, iron ore tailings) and other industrial by-products utilised as green stabilisers to produce controlled low-strength material (CLSM) are systematically reviewed in terms of physical and mechanical properties and environmental impact of these mine waste and by-products. Accordingly, a comprehensive review of the potential utilisation of mine waste, tailings, and other by-products in combination with cement as cemented paste backfill (CLSM) in backfilling of the open pits, underground mine stopes, and construction of civil infrastructure is conducted in this study. The influences of stabilising content of cement, mine tailings, and their potential combination with other additives such as slag and fly ash and curing time on the engineering properties of CLSM are assessed and included in this review. Through this current state-of-the-art review, the possibility of recycling mine wastes and other industrial by-products in combination with cement as CLSM is summarised to be a promising backfill material and potentially utilised to backfill the open pits, underground mine stopes, construction of tailings dams, and highway embankments. Meanwhile, limitations of the utilisation of industrial by-products as CLSM in the current literature are presented for further investigations in promoting the safety and recycling of industrial by-products such as mine waste and tailings for a cleaner environment and production of the mining and civil industry.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".