Monitoring ketoacidosis and ketosis through electrochemical sensing of acetone and acetoacetate in biological fluids after dilution
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The detection and monitoring of ketone metabolic markers is essential to accurately diagnose ketoacidosis in diabetic patients, safely manage ketogenic diets, and reduce complications associated with ketosis. There is a need for low-cost point-of-use sensors which can accurately monitor ketone bodies (including acetoacetate, acetone, and β-hydroxybutyrate) in biological fluids with minimal sample handling. In this study, we developed an electrochemical sensor for the detection of two ketone bodies, acetone and acetoacetate, using square wave voltammetry with bare/unmodified screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs). This method involves direct electrochemical oxidation after derivatization with 2-hydrazinobenzoic acid as an electrochemical probe, eliminating the need for enzymes as recognition elements and thus providing enhanced long-term stability for the sensor. While acetone and acetoacetate lack inherent electrochemical activity, they generate a new peak upon reacting with the probe, indicating the formation of hydrazone derivatives corresponding to each ketone body. The method exhibits excellent linearity over a concentration range of 0.125 – 1.25 mM, with limits of detection of 0.034 mM for acetone and 0.037 mM for acetoacetate. The proposed voltammetric method was successfully applied to the detection of acetone in spiked artificial saliva and acetoacetate in spiked rat urine samples, without significant interference from the sample matrices. The reaction mechanism between the probe and the ketone bodies was further confirmed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). These results represent a significant step forward towards the monitoring of ketone bodies through the use of low-cost, point-of-use sensors. • Developed electrochemical sensors for detection of acetone and acetoacetate using a chemical probe. • Limits of detection of 0.034 mM for acetone and 0.037 mM for acetoacetate were obtained using screen printed electrodes. • No interference from glucose or beta-hydroxy butyrate was observed demonstrating its selectivity. • Sensors were used to detect acetone in spiked artificial saliva and acetoacetate in spiked rat urine samples. • We demonstrate effective monitoring of ketone bodies using low-cost, point-of-use sensors.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".