Sex differences in electrical activity of the brain during sleep: a systematic review of electroencephalographic findings across the human lifespan
Why this work is in the frame
A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.
Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: With the explosion of techniques for recording electrical brain activity, our recognition of neurodiversity has expanded significantly. Yet, uncertainty exists regarding sex differences in electrical activity during sleep and whether these differences, if any, are associated with social parameters. We synthesised existing evidence applying the PROGRESS-Plus framework, which captures social parameters that may influence brain activity and function. METHODS: We searched five databases from inception to December 2024, and included English language peer-reviewed research examining sex differences in electrical activity during sleep in healthy participants. We performed risk of bias assessment following recommended criteria for observational studies. We reported results on sex differences by wave frequency (delta, theta, alpha, sigma, beta, and gamma) and waveforms (spindle and sawtooth), positioning results across age-related developmental stages. We created visualizations of results linking study quality and consideration of PROGRESS-Plus parameters, which facilitated certainty assessment. RESULTS: Of the 2,783 unique citations identified, 28 studies with a total of 3,374 participants (47% male, age range 4-5 months to 101 years) were included in data synthesis. Evidence of high certainty reported no sex differences in alpha and delta relative power among participants in middle-to-late adulthood. Findings of moderate certainty suggest no sex differences in alpha power; and theta, sigma and beta relative power; and delta density. There is evidence of moderate certainty suggesting that female participants had a steeper delta wave slope and male participants had greater normalized delta power. Evidence that female participants have higher spindle power density is of low certainty. All other findings were regarded as very low in certainty. The PROGRESS-Plus parameters were rarely integrated into the methodology of studies included in this review. CONCLUSION: Evidence on the topic of sex differences in sleep wave parameters is variable. It is possible that the reported results reflect unmeasured social parameters, instead of biological sex. Future research on sex differences in sleep should be discussed in relevance to functional or clinical outcomes. Development of uniform testing procedures across research settings is timely. PROSPERO: CRD42022327644. FUNDING: Canada Research Chairs (Neurological Disorders and Brain Health, CRC-2021-00074); UK Pilot Award for Global Brain Health Leaders (GBHI ALZ UK-23-971123).
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it