Republican China as a Unity of Opposites: An Analysis of the Essence of Semi-colonialism and Semi-feudalism From 1911 to 1949
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract This chapter argues that the destruction of the Chinese economy and the immiseration of the productive classes of the country during the Republican era were caused by contradictions arising from the forceful articulation of the Chinese social formation to imperialism. We further argue that imperialism, as an external factor, could only cause the stagnation of the Chinese economy because of the particular essence of the modes of production found within Chinese imperial society at the end of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911). The critical internal factors were strong bureaucratic and feudal modes of production, which left merchant capitalism unfree to develop. When imperialism opened China to the international capitalist market, Chinese merchant capitalists served as a bridge between imperialism and Chinese feudalism. Their growing influence tended to reinforce their capitalism's feudal and bureaucratic appearances. The articulation of this comprador capitalism with the State-based mode of production and feudalism created, during the Republican era, bureaucratic–capitalism, which increased the exploitation of working people by the State, landlords, and capitalists. This articulation of feudalism, bureaucratic–capitalism, and imperialism was the root cause of the underdevelopment of the Chinese economy.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".