Fabricating lignin-derived flocculants – A review
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The rising water crisis and challenges associated with the use of petrochemicals have resulted in an increased interest in using renewable biopolymer-based materials for decontaminating water and wastewater effluents. Lignin is the second most abundant natural polymer that is produced in large quantities in the pulping and biorefinery industries. Lignin has received a great deal of attention in the last decades for developing lignin-based polymers as effective coagulants and flocculants. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the primary research conducted to develop different types of lignin-based flocculants for treating colloidal suspensions and solutions in single and dual polymer systems. The modification strategies, including sulfonation, oxidation , Mannich, carboxymethylation, graft copolymerization , and crosslinking, are reviewed as strategies for altering the physicochemical characteristics of technical lignins for mimicking flocculants. Moreover, the benefits, challenges, and future opportunities related to the preparation and employment of lignin-based flocculants are also discussed.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".