Tracking structural H- and O-isotope exchange in smectite during bentonite-water interactions over a thermal gradient in the Alternative Buffer Materials experiments
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In order to track structural stable hydrogen (H)- and oxygen (O)-isotope exchange between smectite and water over a thermal gradient, samples were studied from the Alternative Buffer Materials (ABM) 2 and 5 experiments conducted at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory in Sweden for five different bentonite materials. The ABM experiments were designed to investigate the stability of different bentonite materials of interest as buffers around canisters containing spent nuclear fuel in long-term underground repositories. The ABM2 and 5 experiments consisted of compacted bentonite discs stacked vertically around a central heating system in a host-rock borehole for several years, with this configuration intended to simulate heating that occurs during radionuclide decay. The ABM experiments provided a unique opportunity to track isotopic exchange between smectite and water in a long-term, imperfect, natural but still semi-controlled environment. Clear differences were observed for H-isotope compositions between the ABM2 and ABM5 packages. O-isotope compositions showed similar trends between the two ABM packages. In both ABM packages H- and O-isotope exchange was more progressed at higher temperatures but the mechanisms for H- and O-isotope exchange proceeded differently. H-isotope compositions nearly reached modeled equilibrium values at temperatures between 130 and 150 °C in the absence of any smectite alteration, which suggests proton exchange as the exchange mechanism. The percentage of exchange calculated for oxygen showed that it was far from reaching equilibrium and was more resistant to exchange than hydrogen. A dissolution/re-precipitation mechanism involving fine smectite most simply explains calculated percentages of oxygen exchanged that range between initial and modeled equilibrium O-isotope compositions. • Alternative Buffer Materials2&5 (ABM) are radioactive waste bentonite barrier tests. • Different trends were observed for H-isotopes between ABM2 and ABM5. • O-isotope compositions showed similar trends between the two ABM packages. • H- and O-isotope exchange was more progressed at higher temperatures. • H-isotopes nearly reached modeled equilibrium values between 130 and 150 °C.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".