Bibliographic record
Abstract
The tax fixed by the government on import and export of goods is called customs. During the time of Hazrat Umar (R.A), the governments of Iran and Rome had a constitution that whenever Muslims entered the borders of traders for trade, they used to collect fixed taxes from them. But when non-Muslim traders entered the Islamic State, no tax was collected from them, which would have caused trade deficit for the citizens of the Islamic State and non-Muslims would have been protected from this deficit. In this regard Hazrat Umar (may Allah have mercy on him) sent an order to the Governors saying: "Receive from them as much as they receive from Muslim traders. Take half a decade from the dhimmi and receive a dirham from the Muslims every forty dirhams, and there is nothing less than 200 dirhams. When the two hundred dirhams arrive, there are five dirhams in them, and when there are more than 200, receive it accordingly. Hazrat Umar suggested to continue trading between non-Muslims and Muslims and also to impose Ashure (tax) on them. However, it was given that the trader from who tax (Ashure) should be collected once a year should not be taken again from any number of times in the year after that. What is the difference between the Ashure of the time of Hazrat Umar (R.A) and today's tax is called customs duty.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.004 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.983 | 0.985 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; the direct Gemma label and the distilled Codex classifier agree on what is shown here.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".