Characterization of external cross-talk from silicon photomultipliers in a liquid xenon detector
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract The Light-only Liquid Xenon experiment (LoLX) employs a small-scale detector equipped with 96 Hamamatsu VUV4 silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) submerged in 5 kg of liquid xenon (LXe) to perform characterization measurements of light production, transport and detection in xenon. In this work, we perform a novel measurement of the “external cross-talk” (ExCT) of SiPMs, where photons produced in the avalanche escape the device and produce correlated signals on other SiPMs. SiPMs are the photodetector technology of choice for next generation rare-event search experiments; understanding the sources and effects of correlated noise in SiPMs is critical for producing accurate estimates of detector performance and sensitivity projections. We measure the probability to observe ExCT through timing correlation of detected photons in low-light conditions within LoLX. Measurements of SiPM ExCT are detector dependent; thus the ExCT process is simulated and modelled using the Geant4 framework. Utilizing simulations, we determine the average transport and detection efficiency for ExCT photons within LoLX, a necessary input to extract the true ExCT probability and detector independent photon emission intensity. For an applied overvoltage of 4 V and 5 V, we measure a mean number of photons emitted into LXe per avalanche of $$0.5^{+0.3}_{-0.2}$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>0</mml:mn> <mml:mo>.</mml:mo> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mn>5</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>-</mml:mo> <mml:mn>0.2</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mn>0.3</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> and $$0.6^{+0.3}_{-0.2},$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>0</mml:mn> <mml:mo>.</mml:mo> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mn>6</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>-</mml:mo> <mml:mn>0.2</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mn>0.3</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> <mml:mo>,</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> respectively. Using an optical model to describe photon transmission through the SiPM surface, this corresponds to an estimated photon yield inside the bulk silicon of $$20^{+11}_{-9}$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mn>20</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>-</mml:mo> <mml:mn>9</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mn>11</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> </mml:math> and $$25^{+12}_{-9}$$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mn>25</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>-</mml:mo> <mml:mn>9</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mn>12</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> </mml:math> photons per avalanche. The relative increase in intensity of SiPM ExCT emission between 4 and 5 V is consistent with expectation for the linear increase of gain with respect to overvoltage.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".