Active subglacial lakes in the Canadian Arctic identified by multi-annual ice elevation changes
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract. Subglacial lakes influence glacier hydrology, dynamics, and mass balance; however, they are poorly documented outside the polar ice sheets. Here we use high-resolution digital elevation models from 2011 to 2021 and perform regression analysis to characterize 37 subglacial lakes (35 of which are newly identified) across the Canadian Arctic, a region that loses more than 50 gigatonnes of glacier ice yearly. These lakes have an area of 0.3–48.5 km2 and influence surface elevation by 10–150 m, corresponding to a water volume of 0.003–4.5 km3. We classify them into (1) classic subglacial lakes, (2) terminal subglacial lakes at places where two glacier termini converge and coalesce, and (3) partial subglacial lakes with an area of open water at the ice margin. Types 2 and 3 are new and are nearly exclusive in the Canadian Arctic. Lake activities negatively correlate with regional mass balance, implying a need for fine-scale monitoring in the era of accelerated glacier loss.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".