The Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Heatwaves and Cold‐Spells in Earth's Largest Freshwater Systems
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Extreme water temperatures impact the ecological and economic value of freshwater systems. They disrupt fisheries habitat, trigger harmful algal blooms, and stress coastal infrastructure. This study examines the spatiotemporal patterns of heatwaves and cold‐spells in the Great Lakes using 82 years of simulated surface temperature data. Significant increasing trends in heatwave duration were observed in Lake Superior and Lake Michigan‐Huron, while cold‐spell duration increased on all lakes except Ontario. Temperature anomalies during these events varied from the climatological mean by as much as ±10C, but did not change significantly over time. Analysis revealed substantial spatial variability in heatwaves and cold‐spells, both within and across lakes, with differences driven by air temperature and ice cover anomalies as well as associated climate teleconnections (i.e., the East Pacific/North Pacific and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation). These findings highlight the importance of both climatic and lake processes in shaping extreme temperature events.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".