Insights into the toxicity effects of indoxacarb against <i>Spodoptera frugiperda</i> using metabolomics combined with mass spectrometry imaging
Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: As one of the most destructive and invasive pests for various plants in China, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) poses an enormous threat to food security and results in serious economic losses for harvesting and consumption of agricultural vegetables. To this end, indoxacarb has shown great promise as an effective insecticide against Spodoptera frugiperda. It is metabolized by insect esterases or amidases into the N-decarbomethoxy metabolite (DCJW), which is a key metabolite responsible for the insecticidal activity of indoxacarb. The efficiency of DCJW generation directly affects the efficacy of pest control against target species such as Spodoptera frugiperda. Despite these efforts, insights into in situ metabolic regulation of Spodoptera frugiperda toward indoxacarb remain unclear. RESULTS: Herein, we systematically explored the toxic effects of indoxacarb on Spodoptera frugiperda, including growth and development, locomotion, feeding, enzyme activity, expression levels and spatial distribution of metabolites. After indoxacarb treatment for 48 h, Spodoptera frugiperda exhibited a longer movement distance and lower food consumption with detoxifying enzymes significantly affected. Combining complementary strengths of metabolomics and mass spectrometry imaging, this study not only identifies dysregulated metabolic changes in Spodoptera frugiperda but also visualizes the spatial distribution of key metabolites and lipids. CONCLUSION: Collectively, the findings suggest that the high toxicity of indoxacarb regarding Spodoptera frugiperda may be due to the inhibition of purine and amino acid metabolism, and mitochondrial damage, providing new perspectives for deciphering the toxicity mechanism between pesticides and target organisms. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".