Dynamical Stability Analysis of Grid-Following and Grid-Forming Inverters With Blockchain Integration for Enhanced Performance in Modernized Nested Microgrids
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The integration of renewable energy sources and distributed energy resources (DERs) has driven the evolution of modernized nested microgrids, enhancing resilience and flexibility in power distribution systems. Grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) inverters are central to these systems, with GFL units emulating current sources challenged by uncertain grid impedance, and GFM units emulating voltage sources required to adapt to dynamic load variations. Mode transitions introduce instability through multi-loop control interactions. This work presents a comprehensive dynamical stability analysis of GFL and GFM inverters in nested microgrids, supported by advanced control strategies addressing dynamic response limitations, sensor dependencies, filter fluctuations, and controller complexities. An eigenvalue-based framework identifies dominant oscillatory modes, while online adaptation mitigates disturbances to preserve closed-loop performance. Time-evolution modeling of observables enables enhanced real-time monitoring. A blockchain-enabled decentralized framework ensures secure, transparent, and automated stability actions. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experiments on a modified IEEE 123-node test feeder demonstrate a total harmonic distortion (THD) of 1.75% under weak-grid conditions compared with 2.73%, 4.76%, 8.40%, and 2.2% for other approaches and 0.3% under grid-impedance variation and <0.3% under nonlinear loading. The proposed controller achieves 0.06% tracking error dynamics and 0.02% steady-state error, outperforming classical methods (0.32–0.87% and 0.17–0.38%, respectively), with a computational time of 29 ms. The blockchain layer, implemented on the Polygon network, achieved a measured throughput of 1,572 transactions/s, an average block time of 2.3 s, and transaction fees below $0.01 USD, enabling rapid, economical, and scalable peer-to-peer stability service execution.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".