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The Optical Sensor for IceCube-Gen2
A. Kappes, M. Ackermann, Jenni Adams, Sanjib Kumar Agarwalla, Juanan Aguilar, M. Ahlers, Jean-Marco Alameddine, Shoukat Ali, Najia Moureen Binte Amin, K. Andeen, G. Anton, C. Argüelles, Yosuke Ashida, Sofia Athanasiadou, Jan Audehm, Spencer Axani, Rishi Babu, X. Bai, Aswathi Balagopal, Moreno Baricevic, Steven W. Barwick, Vedant Basu, Ryan Bay, J. Becker Tjus, Jakob Beise, Chiara Bellenghi, Bruno Benkel, S. BenZvi, D. Berley, E. Bernardini, Dave Besson, Abigail Bishop, E. Blaufuss, Lucas Bloom, Summer Blot, M. Böhmer, Federico Bontempo, Jürgen Borowka, Caterina Boscolo Meneguolo, Sebastian BOSER, O. Botner, J. Böttcher, Sjoerd Bouma, Jim Braun, Bennett Brinson, Zoe Brisson-Tsavoussis, Ryan T. Burley, Mauricio Bustamante, Delaney Butterfield, Michael Campana, Kiara Carloni, Maddalena Cataldo, Sharmistha Chattopadhyay, Thien Nhan Chau, Zheyang Chen, D. Chirkin, Seowon Choi, Brian Clark, Rogan Clark, Alan Coleman, Peter John Cusack Coleman, Gabriel Collin, Diego Alberto Coloma Borja, J. M. Conrad, Rebecca Corley, D. F. Cowen, Cosmin Deaconu, C. De Clercq, Simon De Kockere, James DeLaunay, Diyaselis Delgado, Thomas Delmeulle, Shuyang Deng, Abhishek Desai, P. Desiati, Krijn de Vries, G. de Wasseige, J. C. Díaz–Vélez, Stephen DiKerby, Markus Dittmer, Giang Do, Alba Domi, Lincoln Draper, Lasse Dueser, Hrvoje Dujmović, Daniel Durnford, Kaustav Dutta, M. A. DuVernois, Treston Egby, Thomas Ehrhardt, Leonhard Eidenschink, Anna Eimer, P. Eller, Enrico Ellinger, Dominik Elsässer, Ralph Engel, Hannah Erpenbeck, Waleed Esmail, Steven Eulig, John Evans, J. J. Evans, P. A. Evenson, Kwok Lung Fan, Ke Fang, Kareem Ramadan Farrag, A. R. Fazely, Anatoli Fedynitch, Nora Feigl, C. Finley, Leander Fischer, Benjamin Flaggs, D. B. Fox, A. Franckowiak, H. Fujii, Satoshi Fukami, Philipp Fürst, J. S. Gallagher, Erik Ganster, Alfonso Garcia, Gaurav Garg, Eliot Genton, L. Gerhardt, Pawan Giri, Christian Gläser, T. Glüsenkamp, Sreetama Goswami, Alejandra Granados, Darren Grant, Shannon Gray, Sean Griffin, Spencer Griswold, David Joseph Guevel, Christoph Günther, Pascal Gutjahr, C. Ha, Christian Haack, A. Hallgren, S. Hallmann, L. Halve, F. Halzen, Leon Hamacher, Martin Ha Minh, Michael Handt, K. Hanson, John Hardin, Alexander Harnisch, Patrick Hatch, A. Haungs, Jonas Häußler, D. Heinen, K. Helbing, Jonas Hellrung, Brian Hendricks, Brandon Henke, Lukas Hennig, Felix Henningsen, Jakob Henrichs, Lars Philipp Heuermann, Nils Heyer, Stephanie Hickford, Attila Hidvégi, Colton Hill, Gary J. Hill, Kara Hoffman, Benjamin D. Hoffmann, Dan Hooper, Sam Hori, Kotoyo Hoshina, Matheus Hostert, Wenjie Hou, Thomas Huber, T. Huege, Enrique Huesca Santiago, K. Hultqvist, Raamis Hussain, Karolin Hymon, A. Ishihara, W. Iwakiri, Marc Jacquart, Samyak Jain, Annanay Jaitly, Oliver Janik, Matti Jansson, Minjin Jeong, Miaochen Jin, O. Kalekin, N. Kamp, Donghwa Kang, Woosik Kang, Xinyue Kang, Leonora Kardum, T. Karg, Martina Karl, A. Karle, Akanksha Katil, T. Katori, U. Katz, M. Kauer, J. L. Kelley, Manish Khanal, Arifa Khatee Zathul, Ali Kheirandish, J. Kiryluk, Matthias Kleifges, Carolin Klein, Takurõ Kobayashi, Yukiho Kobayashi, Alina Kochocki, H. Kolanoski, Tomas Kontrimas, L. Köpke, Claudio Kopper, D. J. Koskinen, Paras Koundal, M. Kowalski, Ilya Kravchenko, Krishnamoorthi Jayakumar, Tanvi Krishnan, Emmett Krupczak, Anil Kumar, Emma Kun, N. Kurahashi, Neha Navnitkumar Lad, Louise Lallement Arnaud, M. J. Larson, Frederik Hermann Lauber, Kayla Leonard DeHolton, Agnieszka Leszczyńska, Jiyuan Liao, Martin Liu, Maria Liubarska, Manisha Lohan, John LoSecco, Christy Love, Lu Lu, Francesco Lucarelli, Yang Lyu, Jim Madsen, Else Magnus, K. B. M. Mahn, Yuya Makino, Elena Manao, Sarah Mancina, Shivesh Mandalia, Wenceslas Marie Sainte, Ioana Codrina Maris, Szabolcs Márka, Z. Márka, Matthew Marsee, Lars Marten, Ivan Martínez-Soler, R. Maruyama, Finn Mayhew, Frank McNally, J. V. Mead, K. Meagher, Sarah Mechbal, Andrés Medina, Maximilian Meier, Yarno Merckx, Lukas Merten, Zackary Meyers, Masha Mikhailova, Archie Millsop, Justin Mitchell, T. Montaruli, R. W. Moore, Yasutsugu Morii, Bob Morse, Anke Mosbrugger, Marjon Moulai, Despina Mousadi, Tista Mukherjee, Marco Stein Muzio, Richard Naab, Maxwell Nakos, Ashish Narayan, Uwe Naumann, Jannis Necker, A. Nelles, Ludwig Neste, Miriam Neumann, Hans Niederhausen, Mehr Un Nisa, K. Noda, Alexander Novikov, Eric Oberla, A. Obertacke Pollmann, Vivian O'Dell, Alex Olivas, Rasmus Ørsøe, Jesse Osborn, Erin O’Sullivan, Veronika Palušová, László Papp, A. Parenti, Nahee Park, Ek Narayan Paudel, Larissa Paul, C. Pérez de los Heros, Teresa Pernice, T. C. Petersen, Josh Peterson, A. Pizzuto, M. Plum, Axel Ponten, Yuriy Popovych, Maria Prado Rodriguez, B. Pries, Rachel Procter-Murphy, G. T. Przybylski, Lilly Pyras, John Rack-Helleis, N. Rad, M. Rameez, Martin Langgård Ravn, Katherine Rawlins, Zoë Rechav, Abdul Rehman, E. Resconi, Simeon Reusch, Chang Dong Rho, W. Rhode, Benedikt Riedel, Michael Riegel, Adam Rifaie, Ella Roberts, Sally Robertson, Martin Rongen, C. Rott, Tim Ruhe, Ruohan Li, D. Ryckbosch, I. Safa, Julian Saffer, Daniel Salazar-Gallegos, Pranav Sampathkumar, Alexander Sandrock, P. Sandstrom, Grace Sanger-Johnson, M. Santander, S. Sarkar, Joelle Savelberg, Pierpaolo Savina, Patrick Schaile, Merlin Schaufel, H. Schieler, Sebastian Schindler, Lea Schlickmann, Berit Schlüter, Felix Schlüter, Nick Schmeisser, Torsten Schmidt, Frank Schröder, L. Schumacher, Sonke Schwirn, S. Sclafani, D. Seckel, Mohammad Ful Hossain Seikh, Zeynep Su Selcuk, S. Seunarine, Mike Shaevitz, Riya Shah, Shefali Shefali, Norio Shimizu, M. Silva, Barbara Skrzypek, Robert Snihur, Jan Soedingrekso, A. Søgaard, Dennis Soldin, Philipp Soldin, Giacomo Sommani, Christian Spannfellner, G. M. Spiczak, Christian Spiering, Juliana Stachurska, M. Stamatikos, Todor Stanev, T. Stezelberger, Jethro Stoffels, Timo Stürwald, Thomas Stuttard, G. W. Sullivan, I. Taboada, A. Taketa, Tagtshen Tamang, Samvel Ter-Antonyan, Andrii Terliuk, Matthias Thiesmeyer, Will Thompson, Jessie Thwaites, Serap Tilav, Kirsten Tollefson, Jorge Torres, Simona Toscano, Delia Tosi, Alexandra Trettin, Y. Tsunesada, Jean Pierre Twagirayezu, Anuj Kumar Upadhyay, Karriem Upshaw, Arun Vaidyanathan, Nora Valtonen-Mattila, Janeth Valverde, Justin Vandenbroucke, Thijs van Eeden, N. van Eijndhoven, Lene van Rootselaar, J. V. Santen, Félix Carbonell, Fahim Varsi, Darko Veberič, Joshua Veitch-Michaelis, Megha Venugopal, Sebastian Vergara Carrasco, Stef Verpoest, A. G. Vieregg, Aishwarya Vijai, Joshua Villarreal, C. Walck, Andrew Wang, Daniel Washington, Chris Weaver, Philip Weigel, Andreas Weindl, Jan Weldert, Alex Wen, Chris Wendt, Johannes Werthebach, Mark Weyrauch, N. Whitehorn, C. H. Wiebusch, Dawn Williams, Stephanie Wissel, Lucas Witthaus, Martin Wolf, Gunter Worner, Gerrit Wrede, Steven Wren, Xianwu Xu, Juan Pablo Yáñez, Yuhua Yao, Emre Burak Yildizci, S. Yoshida, Robert Young, G. B. Yu, Shiqi Yu, Tianlu Yuan, Angela Zegarelli, Shuo Zhang, Zelong Zhang, Pavel Zhelnin, Simon Zierke, Perri Zilberman, Melany Zimmerman
Bibliographic record
Venuenot available
Typearticle
Languageen
FieldEngineering
TopicRadio Wave Propagation Studies
Canadian institutionsnot available
FundersOffice of Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive ResearchMarsden FundJapan Society for the Promotion of ScienceDeutsches Elektronen-SynchrotronNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of CanadaOffice of Polar ProgramsCollege of Engineering, Michigan State UniversityChiba UniversityAlliance de recherche numérique du CanadaHelmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle PhysicsInstitute for Global Prominent Research, Chiba UniversityRWTH Aachen UniversityKnut och Alice Wallenbergs StiftelseVillum FondenNational Research Foundation of KoreaSchweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen ForschungNational Science FoundationBelgian Federal Science Policy OfficeDeutsche ForschungsgemeinschaftMichigan State UniversityNational Research FoundationUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonVetenskapsrådetU.S. Department of EnergyOffice of Advanced CyberinfrastructureEuropean CommissionWestern Canada Research GridFonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRSPolarforskningssekretariatetFonds Wetenschappelijk OnderzoekNvidiaMarquette University
KeywordsUpgradePhotomultiplierReflector (photography)RetroreflectorSIGNAL (programming language)Reflection (computer programming)DigitizationSampling (signal processing)
Abstract
An innovative optical module (OM) with segmented light-sensitive area has been developed for IceCube-Gen2 that will take neutrino astronomy at the South Pole to the next level. It builds on the successful features of the mDOM and D-Egg modules of IceCube Upgrade while adapting to the smaller borehole diameter of IceCube-Gen2. The newly developed OM, which is being tested in IceCube Upgrade, serves as a prototype for the planned mass production of about 10,000 OMs for IceCube-Gen2. To simplify the assembly process, important changes were made to the design, in particular to integrate the new gel pad concept. This replaces the 3D-printed support structure of the mDOM while maintaining through total internal reflection the increased light collection efficiency of the reflector rings. In addition, the design features local generation of high voltage for each photomultiplier tube (PMT) via a Cockcroft-Walton circuit and the full digitization of the signal on each PMT base with a sampling rate of 60 MSpS. This significantly reduces the complexity of the mainboard so that it fits into the limited space available. This article describes the development status and presents the performance of the first prototypes.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
metaresearch head score (Codex)0.001
metaresearch head score (Gemma)0.001
Version: metacan-v3-hybrid-931329e0061cValidation status: machine_predicted_unvalidated
Candidate categoriesnone
Consensus categoriesnone
DomainCandidate signal: none · Consensus signal: none
Study designCandidate signal: Bench or experimental · Consensus signal: Bench or experimental
GenreCandidate signal: Empirical · Consensus signal: Empirical
Teacher disagreement score0.003
Threshold uncertainty score0.011
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
Opus teacher head0.012
GPT teacher head0.249
Teacher spread0.238 · how far apart the two teachers sit on this one work
Validation status
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
The models applied no category: nothing in the taxonomy fit this work.
Study designBench or experimental
Domainnot available
GenreEmpirical
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".
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Citations0
Published2025
Admission routes1
Has abstractyes