Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract This paper empirically investigates the effect of immigrant business ownership on Canada's imports using a firm‐level database with business ownership information and import data from 2002 to 2012. Our findings show that immigrant business ownership positively and significantly affects imports from the owners' origin, but it has little impact on imports from other regions. Compared to Canadian‐owned firms, immigrant‐owned firms are more likely to import, with a greater total value, a larger number of products and a higher average value per product from the owners' origin. The impact is larger for wholesalers than for manufacturers. The study also differentiates immigrant owners by their years since arrival. Firms owned by immigrants arriving within five years are more likely to import from the owners' origin than those owned by Canadians under the age of 45 by 14.66 percentage points, but this difference narrows to 6.22 percentage points when the owners stay for more than 15 years. Our findings suggest that while immigrant owners may enhance imports through connections with the origin, this advantage deteriorates with separation. Additionally, we find that immigrant business ownership has little effect on the total value of imports, as higher imports from the owners' origin are offset by lower imports from non‐origin regions.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".