Temperature-Compensated Multi-Level CMOS Modulators Operating From 10 K to 300 K for Cryogenic Interconnects
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This work presents temperature-compensated cryogenic complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) modulators operating over a 10 K to 300 K temperature range, suitable for intra- and inter-thermal cryogenic communications. Conventional metal-based coax cables suffer from a fundamental trade-off between thermal load and frequency-dependent attenuation, where lower thermal load results in higher electromagnetic attenuation. The recent surge in cryogenic high-performance computing and quantum computing has driven the demand for scalable cryogenic interconnect solutions. New techniques in optical fibers and millimeter-wave backscatter transceivers have demonstrated the ability to transport digital data between thermally isolated temperatures without the need for coaxial cables. Our new modulator can integrate (at the package or chip level) with millimeter-wave transmitters co-located on the same thermal condition while supporting bandwidth-efficient modulations such as multi-level pulse amplitude modulations. Based on this motivation, we implemented a current-steering 2-bit modulator in a 65-nanometer (nm) bulk CMOS process. The modulator achieves a data rate of 13 gigabits per second (Gb/s) while consuming 15.4 mW under a 1.2 V supply at 10 K, resulting in an energy efficiency of 1.18 picojoules per bit (pJ/b). In addition to previously demonstrated optical fibers and millimeter-wave backscatter, we implemented a 150 GHz (GHz) transmitter utilizing the same current-steering modulator scheme in a 28-nm CMOS process. We established contactless connections between thermally isolated systems operating at 10 K and 300 K, achieving a data rate of 8 Gb/s.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".