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Measurement of the mean number of muons with energies above 500 GeV in air showers detected with the IceCube Neutrino Observatory
R. Abbasi, J. Adams, Sanjib Kumar Agarwalla, J. A. Aguilar, M. Ahlers, Jean-Marco Alameddine, N. M. Amin, K. Andeen, C. Argüelles, Y. Ashida, S. Athanasiadou, Spencer Axani, R. Babu, X. Bai, J. Baines-Holmes, A. Balagopal V., S. W. Barwick, Simeon Bash, V. Basu, R. Bay, J. Becker Tjus, Peter Behrens, J. Beise, C. Bellenghi, Bruno Benkel, S. BenZvi, D. Berley, E. Bernardini, D. Z. Besson, E. Blaufuss, Linda B. Bloom, S. Blot, Imre Bodó, F. Bontempo, Caterina Boscolo Meneguolo, S. Böser, O. Botner, J. Böttcher, J. Braun, Bennett Brinson, Zoe Brisson-Tsavoussis, R. T. Burley, Delaney Butterfield, Michael Campana, K. Carloni, J. Graciá‐Carpio, S. Chattopadhyay, Thien Nhan Chau, Z. Chen, D. Chirkin, S. Choi, B. A. Clark, A. Coleman, Peter John Cusack Coleman, G. H. Collin, A. Connolly, Rebecca Corley, D. F. Cowen, C. De Clercq, J. J. DeLaunay, D. Delgado, T. Delmeulle, S. Deng, P. Desiati, K. D. de Vries, G. de Wasseige, T. DeYoung, J. C. Díaz-Vélez, Stephen DiKerby, M. Dittmer, A. Domi, Lincoln Draper, L. Dueser, D. Durnford, Kaustav Dutta, M. A. DuVernois, T. Ehrhardt, Leonhard Eidenschink, A. Eimer, P. Eller, E. Ellinger, Dominik Elsässer, R. Engel, H. Erpenbeck, Waleed Esmail, S. Eulig, J. C. Evans, P. A. Evenson, Kwok Lung Fan, Ke Fang, Kareem Ramadan Farrag, A. R. Fazely, A. Fedynitch, Nora Feigl, C. Finley, L. Fischer, D. Fox, A. Franckowiak, S. Fukami, P. Fürst, J. Gallagher, E. Ganster, A. Garcia, M. Ramirez-García, Gaurav Garg, Eliot Genton, L. Gerhardt, A. Ghadimi, C. Glaser, T. Glüsenkamp, J. G. Gonzalez, Sreetama Goswami, Alejandra Granados, D. Grant, S. J. Gray, Sean Griffin, S. Griswold, Kathrine Mørch Groth, David Joseph Guevel, C. Günther, Pascal Gutjahr, C. Ha, C. Haack, A. Hallgren, L. Halve, F. Halzen, Leon Hamacher, M. Ha Minh, Michael Handt, K. Hanson, J. Hardin, A. A. Harnisch, P. Hatch, A. Haungs, Jonas Häußler, K. Helbing, Jonas Hellrung, Lars Hennig, Lars Philipp Heuermann, Rattikorn Hewett, N. Heyer, S. Hickford, A. Hidvegi, C. Hill, Ramy Hmaid, K.D. Hoffman, Dan Hooper, Sam Hori, K. Hoshina, Matheus Hostert, W. Hou, T. Huber, K. Hultqvist, Karolin Hymon, A. Ishihara, W. Iwakiri, M. Jacquart, Samyak Jain, Oliver Janik, Minjin Jeong, Miaochen Jin, N. Kamp, Dong Woo Kang, X. Kang, A. Kappes, Leonora Kardum, T. Karg, M. Karl, A. Karle, Akanksha Katil, M. Kauer, J. L. Kelley, Manish Khanal, A. Khatee Zathul, Ali Kheirandish, H. Kimku, J. Kiryluk, Carolin Klein, S. R. Klein, Yukiho Kobayashi, A. Kochocki, Ramesh Koirala, H. Kolanoski, T. Kontrimas, L. Köpke, C. Kopper, D. J. Koskinen, P. Koundal, Marek Daniel Kowalski, T. Kozynets, Gerhard Krieger, J. Krishnamoorthi, T. Krishnan, K. Kruiswijk, E. Krupczak, A. Kumar, Emma Kun, N. Kurahashi, N. Lad, Cristina Lagunas Gualda, Laurent Arnaud, M. Lamoureux, Michael J Larson, F. Lauber, J. P. Lazar, Kayla Leonard DeHolton, A. Leszczyńska, J. Y. Liao, Yantao Liu, M. Liubarska, C. Love, L. Lu, F. Lucarelli, W. Luszczak, Y. Lyu, J. Madsen, Else Magnus, K. B. M. Mahn, Y. Makino, Elena Manao, S. Mancina, Alicia Mand, I. C. Mariş, S. Márka, Z. Márka, L. Marten, I. Martinez-Soler, R. Maruyama, Finn Mayhew, F. McNally, J. V. Mead, K. Meagher, S. Mechbal, A. Medina, L. Lu, Yarno Merckx, Lukas Merten, Justin Mitchell, L. Molchany, T. Montaruli, R. W. Moore, Y. Morii, Anke Mosbrugger, Marjon Moulai, D. Mousadi, T. Mukherjee, R. Naab, M. Nakos, U. Naumann, J. Necker, Ludwig Neste, M.A. Neumann, H. Niederhausen, M. U. Nisa, K. Noda, A. Noell, A. Novikov, A. Obertacke Pollmann, Vivian O'Dell, A. Olivas, R. Orsoe, J. Osborn, Erin O’Sullivan, Veronika Palušová, H. Pandya, A. Parenti, N. Park, V. A. Parrish, E. N. Paudel, L. Paul, C. Pérez de los Heros, Teresa Pernice, Josh Peterson, M. Plum, Axel Ponten, V. Poojyam, Y. Popovych, M. Prado Rodriguez, B. Pries, R. Procter-Murphy, G. T. Przybylski, Lilly Pyras, C. Raab, J. Rack-Helleis, N. Rad, Martin Langgård Ravn, K. Rawlins, Z. Rechav, Abdul Rehman, I. Reistroffer, E. Resconi, S. Reusch, Chang Dong Rho, W. Rhode, B. Riedel, Adam Rifaie, E. J. Roberts, S. Robertson, M. Rongen, Aske Rosted, C. Rott, T. Ruhe, L. Ruohan, J. Saffer, D. Salazar-Gallegos, P. Sampathkumar, A. Sandrock, Grace Sanger-Johnson, Marcos Santander, S. Sarkar, J. Savelberg, Patrick Schaile, M. Schaufel, H. Schieler, S. Schindler, Lea Schlickmann, B. Schlüter, Felix Schlüter, Nick Schmeisser, T. Schmidt, F. G. Schröder, L. Schumacher, Sonke Schwirn, S. Sclafani, D. Seckel, Leo Seen, M. Seikh, S. Seunarine, Per Arne Sevle Myhr, R. Shah, S. Shefali, N. Shimizu, B. Skrzypek, R. Snihur, J. Soedingrekso, A. Søgaard, D. Soldin, A. Stahl, Giacomo Sommani, C. Spannfellner, G. M. Spiczak, C. Spiering, Juliana Stachurska, M. Stamatikos, T. Stanev, T. Stezelberger, T. Stürwald, T. Stuttard, G. W. Sullivan, I. Taboada, S. Ter–Antonyan, A. Terliuk, A. Thakuri, Matthias Thiesmeyer, W. G. Thompson, J. Thwaites, S. Tilav, K. Tollefson, S. Toscano, D. Tosi, Alexandra Trettin, A. Upadhyay, K. Upshaw, A. Vaidyanathan, N. Valtonen-Mattila, Janeth Valverde, J. Vandenbroucke, Thijs van Eeden, N. van Eijndhoven, J. van Santen, J. Vara, Fahim Varsi, M. Venugopal, M. Vereecken, Sebastian Vergara Carrasco, S. Verpoest, Doğa Veske, A. Vijai, Joshua Villarreal, C. Walck, Andrew Wang, E. H. S. Warrick, C. Weaver, P. Weigel, Andreas Weindl, Alex Wen, C. Wendt, J. Werthebach, M. Weyrauch, N. Whitehorn, C. H. Wiebusch, D. R. Williams, Lucas Witthaus, M. Wolf, Gerrit Wrede, Xiaolin Xu, Juan Pablo Yáñez, Yuhua Yao, Emre Burak Yildizci, Shinsuke Yoshida, R. Young, G. B. Yu, Shaoqing Yu, T. Yuan, A. Zegarelli, Shuo Zhang, Z. Zhang, P. Zhelnin, Perri Zilberman
Bibliographic record
VenuePhysical review. D/Physical review. D. · 2025
Typearticle
Languageen
FieldPhysics and Astronomy
TopicAstrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
Canadian institutionsSimon Fraser UniversityInstitute of Particle PhysicsUniversity of AlbertaQueen's University
FundersOffice of Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive ResearchJapan Society for the Promotion of ScienceNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of CanadaOffice of Polar ProgramsCollege of Engineering, Michigan State UniversityHelmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle PhysicsHelmholtz AssociationAlliance de recherche numérique du CanadaChiba UniversityInstitute for Global Prominent Research, Chiba UniversityRWTH Aachen UniversityKnut och Alice Wallenbergs StiftelseMarsden FundBundesministerium für Bildung und ForschungChung-Ang UniversitySchweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen ForschungNational Science FoundationBelgian Federal Science Policy OfficeDeutsche ForschungsgemeinschaftDeutsches Elektronen-SynchrotronNational Energy Research Scientific Computing CenterAustralian Research CouncilWestern Canada Research GridFonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRSPolarforskningssekretariatetUniversity of MarylandWisconsin Alumni Research FoundationNational Research Foundation of KoreaVillum FondenCanada Foundation for InnovationMarquette UniversityVetenskapsrådetU.S. Department of EnergyUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonNvidiaCarlsbergfondetOffice of Advanced CyberinfrastructureEuropean CommissionNational Research FoundationMichigan State UniversityFonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
KeywordsMuonCosmic rayAir showerNeutrinoEvent (particle physics)HadronObservatoryNeutrino detector
Abstract
We present a measurement of the mean number of muons with energies larger than 500 GeV in near-vertical extensive air showers initiated by cosmic rays with primary energies between 2.5 and 100 PeV. The measurement is based on events detected in coincidence between the surface and in-ice detectors of the IceCube Neutrino Observatory. Air showers are recorded on the surface by IceTop, while a bundle of high-energy muons (TeV muons) from the shower can subsequently produce a tracklike event in the IceCube in-ice array. Results are obtained assuming the hadronic interaction models Sibyll 2.1, QGSJet-II.04, and EPOS-LHC. The measured number of TeV muons is found to be in agreement with predictions from air-shower simulations. The results have also been compared to a measurement of low-energy muons by IceTop, indicating an inconsistency between the predictions for low- and high-energy muons in simulations based on the EPOS-LHC model.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
metaresearch head score (Codex)0.000
metaresearch head score (Gemma)0.001
Version: metacan-v3-hybrid-931329e0061cValidation status: machine_predicted_unvalidated
Candidate categoriesnone
Consensus categoriesnone
DomainCandidate signal: none · Consensus signal: none
Study designCandidate signal: Observational · Consensus signal: Observational
GenreCandidate signal: Empirical · Consensus signal: Empirical
Teacher disagreement score0.002
Threshold uncertainty score0.004
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
Opus teacher head0.011
GPT teacher head0.325
Teacher spread0.313 · how far apart the two teachers sit on this one work
Validation status
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
The models applied no category: nothing in the taxonomy fit this work.
Study designObservational
Domainnot available
GenreEmpirical
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".
Quick stats
Citations2
Published2025
Admission routes2
Has abstractyes