Ethnopharmacological knowledge and physicochemical properties of hot springs in Bhutan
Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Balneotherapy, the therapeutic use of mineral and thermal waters, is an ancient practice with global significance. In Bhutan, the use of hot springs is deeply ingrained in culture and traditions as balneotherapy practices, enriched by extensive ethnopharmacological knowledge. Therefore, this study aims to document the socio-cultural and ethnopharmacological importance of Bhutanese hot springs, analyse their physicochemical characteristics, and correlate them with the perceived therapeutic benefits. METHODS: The study focused on three hot springs in the Gasa and Punakha districts. Qualitative data collection on ethnopharmacological knowledge included informal conversations, semi-structured interviews, oral narrations, and focus group discussions. Thematic analysis was applied to interpret the data. Physicochemical properties of the thermal waters were analysed following standard laboratory protocols. Piper and Stiff plots were used to determine the water type and ion concentration, respectively. Moreover, Spearman's correlation coefficient was used to assess the physicochemical relationships of the thermal water to the perceived health benefits. RESULTS: The study found that people visit hot springs for spiritual connection, social bonding, and therapeutic benefits for musculoskeletal, dermatological, gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular conditions. The Piper diagram revealed that all hot springs exhibit a sodium-chloride (Na⁺-Cl⁻) hydro-chemical facies, suggesting a common geochemical origin. Stiff plot showed higher concentrations of ions in Gasa hot spring than other two sites. A moderate positive correlation was found between the concentrations of calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium, and the perceived health benefits for musculoskeletal and dermal conditions. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the cultural, spiritual, and therapeutic importance of hot springs in Bhutan. The ethnopharmacological benefits, particularly for musculoskeletal and dermal conditions, is found to be linked to the physicochemical composition of the thermal waters. However, it calls for more research in terms of physicochemical analysis of thermal waters and clinical trials to scientifically validate these practices so they can be institutionalized as complementary and alternative treatments.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".