Bibliographic record
Abstract
Introduction and Definition: Naloxone is a “fast-acting medication used to temporarily reverse the effects of opioid overdoses […].” It was approved for use by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1971; however, its mainstream use as a critical overdose antidote emerged between the 1990s and 2010s in response to the opioid crisis. It is most commonly available in the nasal spray form under the brand name Narcan. Body: Naloxone is an opioid receptor antagonist, meaning it attaches to opioid receptor sites in the brain, displacing other opioid drugs (such as heroin, fentanyl and morphine) and stopping their effects (e.g. restoring slowed or stopped breathing). It can begin to take effect within two minutes, but is only active in the body for 30 to 120 minutes, which may be shorter than most opioids’ effects. As such, subsequent doses may be required. Naloxone may induce withdrawal symptoms in opioid-dependent individuals, but is safe for use in people of all ages, does not create dependence, and has no effect if no opioids are present. Naloxone will not reverse the effects of overdoses from non-opioid drugs. Methods of Use: The FDA has approved two forms of naloxone delivery: injectable and nasal spray. If injected, naloxone is delivered intramuscularly, intravenously or subcutaneously. Injectable naloxone requires some needle training, making it less user-friendly than the nasal spray form. Prepackaged naloxone nasal spray is administered into one nostril. It is a needle-free alternative to the injectable naloxone medications, making it easier for bystanders or loved ones to administer without any training. Both forms are highly effective at reversing opioid overdoses and are often used by first responders in such cases. Availability and Implications for Public Health: In Canada, take-home naloxone kits are now available without prescription at most pharmacies or harm reduction centers, and similar programs are in place worldwide. Studies have shown that the implementation of take-home naloxone programs has been cost-effective at reducing opioid overdose deaths and related morbidity. Such layperson interventions increase public awareness and knowledge, reducing stigma around naloxone as well as increasing overdose identification and recovery.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.050 | 0.033 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".