Real-time spatial evolution of the fMRI response to photobiomodulation in the healthy human brain
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive therapeutic technique that uses low-level near-infrared light to influence mitochondrial metabolism and stimulate neural function. While PBM is increasingly used to improve cognitive and clinical outcomes, its in vivo physiological mechanisms in humans remain poorly characterized. In this study, we used BOLD-fMRI to investigate and quantify the temporal and spatial dynamics of transcranial PBM-induced brain activity in young, healthy adults, while incorporating multiple stimulation parameters (wavelength, irradiance, frequency) and transcranial delivery sites (right forehead and intranasal). A time-lagged correlation analysis revealed distinct spatiotemporal patterns of positive and negative BOLD responses that evolved over tens of seconds across both cortical surface and subcortical regions during stimulation. Notably, these effects propagated across brain regions that are potentially mediated by functional networks, were dose-dependent, and were modulated by individual skin tone. This work provides the first real-time, whole-brain mapping of PBM-induced hemodynamic changes in humans, offering new insights into dose-response characteristics and delivery-specific dynamics underlying PBM neurophysiology.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".