Li-ion Battery Recycling by Energy-Efficient, High Throughput Li2SO4 Salt Splitting in a Diaphragm Flow Cell
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Rapidly growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) necessitates a significant expansion of LIB recycling to ensure adequate supply and reduce environmental burdens. Traditional hydrometallurgical LIB recycling processes use superstoichiometric quantities of acid and base and generate large volumes of salt waste. Electrochemical regeneration of acid and base from salt offers a zero-waste alternative but faces challenges with respect to throughput and energy consumption. This study reports a hydrometallurgical process to recycle lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes using acid and base electrochemically generated from a Li2SO4 electrolyte. The electrochemical cell used contains no ion exchange membranes, enabling excellent energy efficiency between 0.033 - 0.097 kWh/mol at current densities up to 500 mA/cm2 and imparting a robust tolerance for impurities that typically foul IEMs. The produced acid and base are found to be competent for etching and recovering >90% of the valuable metals from LIBs at industrially relevant pulp densities up to 66 g/L, and are readily regenerated from the salt solution left at the end of the metal recovery process.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".