How the City Expands? A 3-D View Analysis on Urban Growth Typologies based on Building Height
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Urban expansion and its morphological evolution are crucial for analyzing urban spatial utilization efficiency, development density, and environmental impacts. However, conventional studies on urban expansion often focus on two-dimensional analysis and lack comprehensive historical building height data, limiting long-term morphological analysis. To fill this gap, this study integrates NASADEM data and remote sensing information to develop a 30-meter resolution building height dataset for China in 2000 (CBHD30_2000), achieving high accuracy, with a RMSE of 9.15 meters and a MAE of 6.25 meters. Based on this, clustering analysis identified seven urban expansion types in China between 2000 and 2020, including stabilized, upward, outward, budding outward, budding upward, upward and outward and fast upward-and-outward, revealing that most cities exhibit mixed patterns of expansion. In the 2000s, stabilized dominated, however, by 2010, upward and outward patterns prevailed. The proposed analytical framework offers a novel perspective for uncovering the dynamic evolution of urban morphology and provides theoretical foundations and data support for sustainable urban development and scientific planning.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".