Evolution of Photovoltaic Performance in Perovskite Solar Cells During Thermal Annealing: An <i>Operando</i> Grazing-Incidence Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering Study
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The performance of perovskite solar cells is closely related to the quality of the perovskite film, which in turn is influenced by parameters like the temperature and time of the thermal annealing step. As a result, much work has gone into optimizing these parameters, and in situ studies have further shown how the perovskite layer crystallizes during the annealing process. However, the multilayered device structure makes it more challenging to track exactly how device performance evolves during the perovskite crystallization process. Here, we use operando grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) experiments to monitor the perovskite thermal annealing process and track how changes in crystallinity and film morphology are correlated with changes in device performance. The findings show that the cells are functional even during the early stages of annealing, with a high photovoltage; improvements in efficiency are then driven primarily by improvements in the short-circuit current density as the perovskite crystallizes and charge transport pathways improve.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".